Population:

a set which includes all

measurements of interest
to the researcher
(The collection of all
responses, measurements, or
counts that are of interest)

Sample:
A subset of the population
Get information about large populations
 Less costs
 Less field time
 More accuracy i.e. Can Do A Better Job of Data
Collection
 When it’s impossible to study the whole population
Target Population:
The population to be studied/ to which the investigator
wants to generalize his results
Sampling Unit:
smallest unit from which sample can be selected
Sampling frame
List of all the sampling units from which sample is drawn
Sampling scheme
Method of selecting sampling units from sampling frame
 Non-probability samples

 Probability samples
 Convenience samples (ease of access)
sample is selected from elements of a population that
are easily accessible
 Snowball sampling (friend of friend….etc.)
 Purposive sampling (judgemental)
 You chose who you think should be in the
study
 Quota sample
Probability of being chosen is unknown
Cheaper- but unable to generalise
potential for bias
 Random sampling
› Each subject has a known probability of being
selected
 Allows application of statistical sampling
theory to results to:
› Generalise
› Test hypotheses
 Probability samples are the best

 Ensure
› Representativeness
› Precision
 Simple random sampling
 Systematic sampling
 Stratified sampling
 Multi-stage sampling
 Cluster sampling
Simple random sampling
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582032154785962024
362333254789120325
985263017424503686
 Systematic sampling

Sampling fraction
Ratio between sample size and population size
Systematic sampling
Cluster: a group of sampling units close to each
other i.e. crowding together in the same area or
neighborhood
 Cluster sampling
Section 1 Section 2

Section 3

Section 5

Section 4
 Stratified sampling
 Multi-stage sampling
 Errors in sample

Systematic error (or bias)

Inaccurate response (information bias)
Selection bias

Sampling error (random error)

 The probability of finding a difference with our
sample compared to population, and there really
isn’t one….

 Known as the α (or “type 1 error”)

 Usually set at 5% (or 0.05)

 The probability of not finding a difference that
actually exists between our sample compared to
the population…

 Known as the β (or “type 2 error”)

 Power is (1- β) and is usually 80%

 Sample size

Quantitative Qualitative

Z 2σ 2 Z 2 π(1  π)
n n
D2 D2

(σ12  σ 22 )xF 2 P (1 - P) F
n n
D 2
D2
 Problem 1
A study is to be performed to determine a certain
parameter in a community. From a previous study
a sd of 46 was obtained.
If a sample error of up to 4 is to be accepted. How
many subjects should be included in this study at
99% level of confidence?
 2
Z σ 2
n
D 2
2.582 x 462
n  880.3 ~ 881
42
 A study is to be done to determine effect of 2
drugs (A and B) on blood glucose level. From
previous studies using those drugs, Sd of BGL of
8 and 12 g/dl were obtained respectively.
 A significant level of 95% and a power of 90% is
required to detect a mean difference between the
two groups of 3 g/dl. How many subjects should
be include in each group?
 (σ  σ )xF 2 2
n 2
1 2
D
(82  12 2 )x10.5
n  242.6 ~ 243
32
in each group
It was desired to estimate proportion of anaemic
children in a certain preparatory school. In a
similar study at another school a proportion of 30
% was detected.
Compute the minimal sample size required at a
confidence limit of 95% and accepting a
difference of up to 4% of the true population.
 Z π(1  π) 2
n 2
D

1.962 x 0.3(1  0.3)

n  504.21 ~ 505
(0.04) 2
In previous studies, percentage of hypertensives
among Diabetics was 70% and among non
diabetics was 40% in a certain community.
A researcher wants to perform a comparative study
for hypertension among diabetics and non-
diabetics at a confidence limit 95% and power
80%, What is the minimal sample to be taken
from each group with 4% accepted difference of
true value?
 2 P (1 - P) F
n 2
D

2 x 0.55 (1 - 0.55) x7.8

n  2413.2
0.042
Precision
Cost