Immunity

Contents

Constituents of Immune system

1 Lymphoid organs, Cells involved in immune
system

Types of Immunity
2 Innate and Acquired immunity; Types of Acquired
Immunity

Antibodies
3 Structure and Types

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1. Constituents of
Immune System

Lymphoid organs and Cells of

Immune system
 Lymphoid Organs
Primary Lymphoid
Organs
These are organs where formation and
maturation of lymphocytes occur. They
are of two types:
1. Bone Marrow: The stem cells in
bone marrow give rise B and pre-T
cells. It also acts as site of maturation
of B cells.
2. Thymus: The pre T cells migrate to
thymus and undergo maturation in
the presence of thymosins.
Secondary Lymphoid
Organs
These are the sites where most immune
responses occur. They include:
1. Lymph nodes and nodules: Are
small solid structures located at
different points along the lymphatic
system. They entrap the microbes
which enter into lymph and tissue
fluid. E.g. MALT, Tonsils etc,.
2. Spleen: It is a large bean shaped
organ. It acts as a filter of blood by
trapping blood-borne micro-
organisms.
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Lymphatic System

It shows the network of

primary and secondary
lymphoid organs

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 Cells Involved in Immune System
Antigen
Phagocytes Presenting cells Lymphocytes

Monocytes Macrophages B- lymphocytes

Neutrophils Dendritic cells T-lymphocytes
Kuffer cells B cell Natural Killer cells
Esinophils

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Special class of migratory
cells that processes and
presents antigens to T cells
during an immune
response
Antigen Presenting
Cells
Dendritic cells
Found in mucus
membranes, skin and
lymph nodes. They
process and present
antigen to T cells
Macrophages
They are involved in
phagocytosis and are
also involved in
secretion of antigen
presentation
B cells
Are involved in antibody
production and are also
involved in antigen
presentation to T cells
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 Lymphocytes
Natural Killer
B- cells T- cells Cells
Differentiates into There are of three
Attack a wide variety
antibody producing cells types:
of infectious microbes
called as 1. Cytotoxic cells:
by secreting granzymes
1. Plasma cells: Kills the host target by
and perforins.
Secretes antibodies. secreting granzymes
2. Memory B cells: and perforins.
remains after an 2. Helper T cells: It
immune response helps in proliferation of
and responds rapidly both B cells and T
and forcefully should cells.
the same antigen 3. Suppressor cells: It
enter the body in the helps in regulation of
future. cytotoxic cells
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2. Types of Immunity

Innate Immunity and Acquired

Immunity
 Physical/ Physiological
Anatomical Barriers Barriers
Skin
Mucosa Fever
Hairs pH
Cilia Secretions- sebum,
Innate/ Inborn Saliva, tears, urine lysozyme, vaginal
Immunity- Non secretions

specific immunity Cellular Barriers Cytokine Barriers

Interferons: species
Phagocytic cells:
specific anti-viral
Monocytes, PMNL
proteins secreted by
infected cells. They
Non-Phagocytic cells:
inhibit viral replication
Natural Killer cells
in neighbouring cells

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The different stages of phagocytosis

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 Innate Immunity
1. First Line of Defense: The physical and
physiological barriers
2. Second Line of Defense: The cellular and
cytokine barriers.
3. Inflammation: Inflammation is a
nonspecific, defensive response of the body
to tissue damage. The four characteristic
signs and symptoms of inflammation are
redness, pain, heat, and swelling.
4. Fever: Many bacterial toxins elevate body
temperature, sometimes by triggering
release of fever-causing cytokines such as
interleukin-1 from macrophages

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 Acquired/Adaptive Immunity-Specific Immunity
Humoral Immunity
It is mediated by antibodies.
It is mediated by B-cells.
It is effective against extra-cellular
pathogens such as:
1) Viruses, bacteria or fungi present in
blood
2) Viruses, bacteria or fungi present in
lymph
Cell Mediated Immunity
It is mediated by granzymes and
perforins.
It is mediated by Cytotoxic cells
It is effective against intra-cellular
pathogens such as:
1) Viruses, bacteria or fungi present
inside the cells
2) Some cancer cells
3) Foreign tissue transplants
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 Terms involved in acquired immunity
Major Histocompatibility
Antigen/ Antibody complex/ Human Leucocyte
Agglutinogen Antigen (located on Chr:6)
It is a complex These are the proteins which help in
They are chemical glycoprotein secreted by histocompatibility. There are two
substances that are B-lymphocytes in major classes-MHC I(present on all
recognized as foreign by response to antigen body cells except RBCs) and MHC
the immune system. II ( present on APCs)

Memory Cells Lymphokines Clonal Selection

Upon activation, the These are the cytokines
lymphocytes called as interleukins Clonal selection is the process by
differentiate into active secreted by Helper T which a lymphocyte proliferates
B or T cells and memory cells for activation of B and differentiates in response to a
(B or T cells). and Cytotoxic-T cells specific antigen.

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Cell Mediated Immunity

Cytotoxic Immunity
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 Activation and Clonal
Selection of Helper T cells
1. The TCR of Helper T cells binds to
the antigen.
2. It also gets co-stimulated by binding
of CD4 with MHC-II of Antigen
Presenting Cells(APC).
3. Once activated, the Helper T cells
undergoes clonal selection giving rise
active Helper-T-cells and memory
helper-T-cells
4. The active Helper-T-cells start
secreting lymphokines for the further
immune responses.
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 Activation and Clonal
Selection of Cytotoxic T cells
1. The TCR of Cytotoxic cells bind to
the antigen presented by infected
cells.
2. It also gets co-stimulated by binding
of CD8 to MHC-I of infected cells
and by lymphokines secreted by
Helper-T cells.
3. Once activated, the cytotoxic cells
undergoes clonal selection giving rise
active cytotoxic cells and memory
cytotoxic cells.
4. The active cytotoxic cells attack the
infected body cells
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Activity of Cytotoxic Cells
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Humoral Immunity

Antibody Mediated Immunity

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 Activation and Clonal
Selection of Helper T cells
1. The TCR of Helper T cells binds to
the antigen.
2. It also gets co-stimulated by binding
of CD4 with MHC-II of Antigen
Presenting Cells(APC).
3. Once activated, the Helper T cells
undergoes clonal selection giving rise
active Helper-T-cells and memory
helper-T-cells
4. The active Helper-T-cells start
secreting lymphokines for the further
immune responses.
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 Activation and Clonal
Selection of B cell
1. The antigen first binds to the BCR.
2. It undergoes processing and is
presented to Helper T cells by MHC
II.
3. The Helper T cells then secrete
lymphokines for the co-stimulation of
B-cells.
4. The B cells undergo clonal selection
and form plasma cells and memory B
cells.
5. The plasma cells start secreting
antibodies
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 Structure of Antibody
• They are the glycoproteins made up of two
light chains and two heavy chains.

• The tips of the H and L chains, called the

variable (V) regions, constitute the
antigen-binding site(paratope).

• The constant region of the H chain differs

from one class of antibody to another, and
its structure serves as a basis for
distinguishing five different classes,
designated IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD, and IgE.

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 Types of Antibodies

Ig G Ig A Ig M Ig E Ig D
• 75-80% of total • 10% of total • 5-10% of total • 0.05% of total • 1-3% of total
antibodies antibodies. antibodies antibodies antibodies
• Can pass through • It is called as • First antibody • Stimulates the • Acts as antigen
the placenta secretory produced against mast cells during receptor in B-cells
antibodies. (in an antigen. allergic response
colostrum, saliva • Acts as antigen
etc,.) receptor in B-cells

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 Agglutination Neutralization

The antibodies bind to The antibody neutralizes

two more antigens and certain bacterial toxins.
cross link(clumping)
pathogens enhancing
phagocytosis.
Types of Antibody
Reactions
Opsonisation Immobilisation

The opsonin antibody(IgG If the antibodies are

or IgM) bound to antigen formed against cilia or
activates phagocytes. flagella of bacteria, they
immobilize the bacteria.

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 Types of Responses of Acquired Immunity
Primary Response
After an initial contact with an antigen, no
antibodies are present for a period of several
days.
Then, a slow rise in the antibody titer occurs,
first IgM and then IgG, followed by a gradual
decline in antibody titer.
This is the primary response.
Secondary Response
Every new encounter with the same antigen
results in a rapid proliferation of memory
cells.
After subsequent encounters, the antibody
titer is far greater than during a primary
response and consists mainly of IgG
antibodies.
This accelerated, more intense response is
calledthe secondary response or
anamnestic response.
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Immunological Memory

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 Types of Acquired Immunity
Passive
When ready-made antibodies are
directly given to protect the body
against pathogens, called as passive
immunity.
It is of two types:
1) Natural Passive: Ig G antibodies
through placenta, Ig A antibodies
through colostrum
2) Artificial Passive: Intravenous
injection of antibodies(anti-sera)
Active
Production of antibodies by the body
upon exposure to the antigens, called as
active immunity.
It is of two types:
1) Natural Active: Natural exposure
to the antigens
2) Artificial Active: Antigens
introduced due to vaccination
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 Hypersensitivity or Allergy

• A person who is overly reactive to a substance that is tolerated by most other people is
said to be allergic or hypersensitive.

• Whenever an allergic reaction takes place, some tissue injury occurs. The antigens that
induce an allergic reaction are called allergens (dust, pollen, antibiotics etc.,.)

• In response to the first exposure to certain allergens, some people produce IgE
antibodies that bind to the surface of mast cells and basophils. The next time the same
allergen enters the body, it attaches to the IgE antibodies already present resulting in
hyperactivation of mast cells.

• Treatment: Anti-histamines, steroids, adrenaline.

• E.g. Asthma, Hay Fever, Anaphylactic shock

 Auto-immune disorders
In an autoimmune disease or autoimmunity, the immune system fails to display self-tolerance
and attacks the person’s own tissues. E.g.

• Multiple sclerosis: Antibodies against the myelin sheath

• Myasthenia gravis: Antibodies against acetylcholine receptors

• Rheumatoid arthritis: Ig M antibody(rheumatoid factor)-inflammation of synovial membrane

• Hashimoto disease: Destruction of thyroid gland

• I.D.D.M: Destruction of Beta-cells of pancreas

• Pernicious anemia: Antibodies against Castle’s intrinsic factor

• Grave’s disease: Antibodies that mimic TSH

 Vaccination/ Immunisation

First Generation Second Generation Third Generation

Live attenuated: Small Toxoid vaccines: DNA vaccines: Hepatitis B

pox, BCG, OPV, Tetanus, Diptheria,
MMR Botulism
Heat Killed: IPV, TAB, Recombinant vaccines:
Rabies, Pertussis, Hepatitis B
Influenza,
Pneumonia, Cholera
Immuno-therapy

Immuno-potents Immuno-suppressants

• Interleukins, Interferon-alpha • Steroids, cyclosporin A, anti-

(Tumour necrosis factor) histamines, adrenaline

Grafting
Graft rejection occurs due to
cytotoxic immunity
Autograft
One body part to another
Homo/Allograft
Transplantation between 2
different individuals of the
same species
Isograft
Transplantation between
identical twins
Hetero/Xenograft
Transplantation between
different species.
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Immunodeficiency
disorders

SCID and AIDS

 Severe Combined
Immuno- deficiency
1. A rare inherited disorder in which both B
cells and T cells are missing or inactive.

2. The best-known form of autosomal

recessive SCID is caused by adenosine
deaminase (ADA) deficiency, in which
infants lack the ADA enzyme necessary
for T-cell survival.

3. Treatment: Gene therapy, Infusion of red

bone marrow cells having very similar
MHC (HLA) antigens can be a complete
cure.

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Gene Therapy- cDNA of ADA
gene
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 AIDS

Causative Agent: HIV

Target Cells: Macrophages(HIV factory),

Helper- T- cells (gp 120 complementary to
CD4)

Transmission: Sexual route, Blood transfusion,

transplacental route, Unsterilized needles

Incubation Period: few months- many years

Symptoms: Fever, swollen lymph nodes and

secondary infections

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Replicatio
n
of
Retro
virus

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Opportunistic Infections Treatment

• Tuberculosis-Mycobacterium avium • Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors:

Zidovudin, Stavudin, didexymidine
• Candidiasis- Candida albicans
• Protease Inhibitors: Ritonavir, Nelfinavir,
Sequinavir etc.,.
• Pneumonia-Pneumocystis carinii
• Integrase Inhibitors: Raltegravir,
• Cancer of skin and lymph nodes- Elvitegravir et.,.
Kaposi’s sarcoma
• HAART: Combination of both RT
• Encephalitis- Toxoplasma gondii inhibitors and Protease Inhibitors
ELISA-Diagnostic Test Western Blot- Confirmatory
(Enzymes used- Alkaline Test
phosphatase, peroxidase)
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 Topic related module questions

Exercise I Exercise II Exercise III

2,3,6,7,11,16,17,18,19, 15, 16, 17, 18

1-19,24,38, 46, 23, 26,27,

31,32,37,38,40,41,
47, 48,49 , 53,
54,56,59,60, 62,
65,66,71, 72, 75,
77, 81, 82,
Genetic Disorders

Phenylketonuria, Alkaptonuria,
Albinism, Tay-Sach’s disease,
Thalassemis
 Phenylketonuria
1. Autosomal recessive disorder

2. Deficiency of phenyl alanine

hydroxylase enzyme.

3. Acccumulation of phenylalanine
derivatives in brain and other body
parts.

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 Alkaptonuria
1. Autosomal recessive disorder

2. Deficiency of Homogentisic acid

oxidase enzyme

3. Accumulation of homogentisic acid

which gets oxidised into alkapton
when exposed to the air.

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 Albinism
1. Autosomal recessive disorder

2. Deficiency of enzyme tyrosinase

3. Lack of melanin in skin, hair etc.

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 Tay-sach’s disease
1. Infantile amourotic idiocy.

2. Deficiency of enzyme Beta- N-

acetyl hexoseaminidase enzyme,
involved in fat metabolism.

3. Accumulation of fat in brain and

spinal cord.

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 Thalassemia
1. Autosomal recessive disorder

2. Defect in one or more genes which

results in reduced rate of globin
chains.

3. Types: Alpha thalassemia- HBA1

and HBA2 genes(chr:16); Beta
thalassemia- HBB gene ( chr:11)

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 G-6-Phosphate
Dehydrogenase
Deficiency
1. X-linked recessive disorder

2. Destabilization of the RBC

membrane

3. Rupture of RBCs when it comes in

contact with sulfa drugs, Fava beans,
legumes etc.,

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 Duchenne’s muscular
dystrophy
1. X-linked recessive disorder

2. Deficiency of dystrophin protein

3. Degeneration of muscles

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Chromosomal Disorders

Down’s syndrome, Edward

syndrome, Patau syndrome, Cri-du-
chat, Klienfelter’s syndrome, Turner’s
syndrome, Jacob’s syndrome, Super
Females
 Autosomal Disorders

Down’s syndrome Edward’s syndrome

• Trisomy of chromosome 21. • Trisomy of chromosome 18.
• Symptoms include short stature, • Symptoms include abnormal head
mental retardation, palm is broad size, absence of one or both testes
with a characteristic palm crease etc.

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 Autosomal Disorders

Patau syndrome Cat cry syndrome

• Trisomy of chromosome 13. • Partial deletion of short arm of chr:5
• Symptoms include intellectual • Symptoms include mental
disability and physical defects like retardation, high pitch cat like cry
cleft plate etc. etc.

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 Allosomal Disorders

Klinefelter’s syndrome
• Trisomy of chromosome 23 (47,
XXY)
• Symptoms include low testosterone,
reduced muscle mass, facial hair,
infertility etc.

Turner’s syndrome
• Monosomy of chromosome 23 (45, XO)
• Symptoms include short stature, delayed
puberty, infertility, heart defects and
certain learning disabilities.

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 Allosomal Disorders

Jacob’s syndrome
• Trisomy of chromosome 23 (47,
XYY).
• Symptoms include abnormal height,
aggressive behavior, mental
retardation etc.

Multi-X females
• Trisomy of chromosome 23 (47,
XXX)
• Symptoms include mental
retardation, sterility etc.

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Aneuploid
y

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 Thanks!

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