Objectives

What is Instrumentation
Basic Terminologies
Basic Instruments
Process and control
Industrial Instrumentation
 Instrumentation
1.The process/technology of using instruments to measure
and control the physical and chemical properties of any
material is called Instrumentation .
2.Instrumentation engineering specialization focused on the
design, maintenance and configuration of process
system.
3.Instrumentation is study of Instruments.
 Block diagram of instrumentation

• Sensor: It is a instrument which is convert physical signal into electrical

signal.
• Signal processor: it is signal conditioning system. It include amplifier,
ADC,DAC,
Inverter etc. it coverts electrical signal into different data
format.
• Display: It is displays/Presentation of output.
• Recorder: With the help of recorder, records data.
• Transmit: It is transmission of data for next step.
 Basic Terminologies
• Process: It is set of activities that interact to produce a result,
as in
Chemical industry , Food processing.
• Process variables: Temperature, Pressure, Flow, Level etc.
Temperature: The hotness and coldness of the body is called
temperature.
Unit of temperature is ˚C,˚F,˚K.
Pressure: Force per unit area.
Pressure = Force/Area.
Unit of pressure is PSI,BAR,PASCAL, KG/CM². 1BAR= 14.7 PSI
Flow: Rate of change of differential pressure.
Unit of flow is Litres/min, Gallon/hr, Kg/hr.
Level: Level is difference between two heights. Unit of level is mm,
cm,
meter.
• Signal: The signal is the event that conveys data from one point to
 BASIC INSTRUMENTS
Instruments are devices which is used to measure process variables.
Types of instruments:
1. Pneumatic instrument
2. Electronic instrument
1.Pneumatic instrument: This type of instrument requires air pressure to
perform.
(3- 15PSi), (0.2-1Kg/cm2).
2. Electronic instrument: it requires electrical signal to operate. (4-20ma0,
(0-10v Dc) I. Analog instrument
II. Digital instrument

• Analog instrument: It requires continuous electrical signal to

operate.
• Digital instrument: It requires electrical pulse(on/off) to
operate.
 Transducer
Transducer:
It is instrument which converts one form of energy into another
form.
Ex. 1. RTD/Thermistor for temperature
2. Strain gauge for pressure
Classification of Transducer
1. Active and Passive transducer
2. Analog and Digital transducer
3. Primary and secondary transducer
4. Transducer and reverse transducer
• Active Transducer: It means to operate transducer no need of external power
source.
• Ex. Photo-voltaic cell
• Passive Transducer: Its requires external power supply to operate.
• Ex. Proxymity sensor
• Primary Transducer: Transducer which converts the physical signal to a form
readable by
secondary transducer.
Ex. Bourdon tube with LVDT.
• Secondary Transducer: Transducer or Transmitter which responds to measured
variable and
converts it to a standard signal format.
Ex. LVDT, Level transmitter
• Analog transducer: It convert physical signal it converts into analog form. It is
changes w.r.t
time.
Ex. Pressure gauge
• Digital Transducer: Its output in discrete form. (ON-OFF) format.
Ex. Proximity sensor
• Transducer: It is convert physical signal into electrical signal.
Ex. LVDT
• Inverse transducer: It converts electrical signal into non-electrical signal.
 INSTRUMENT Characteristic

Static characteristic Dynamic Characteristic

 The instrument which measure The instrument which measure
quantities do not vary with time. quantities vary with time.
 Range and span  Speed of response
 Linearity and sensitivity  Measuring lag
 Resolution  Fidelity
 Stability  Dynamic error
 Accuracy
 Precision
 Threshold
 Reproducibility
 RANGE :
It defines the maximum and minimum values within which the
instrument can be
used for measurement.
Range expressed by lower and upper values.
Ex. For temp. sensor, range cane be -100 ˚c to 100˚c.
 SPAN:
The differences between the upper and lower range values of the
instrument.
 Reproducibility:
If range is -100 ˚c to 200˚c then span is 200 ˚ c.
Ability of an instrument to reproduce the same value when
measuring
a parameter under identical measurement conditions.
Measured value same every time.

 Stability :
the ability of an instrument to maintain a certain physical
property at a
 Linearity:
It is change in output is directly proportion to change in input.
Ratio of output to input is a constant.
 Sensitivity:
This is relation between a change in the output reading for a
given change in input.
Sensitivity(K) = Change in output
Change in input
 Threshold:
Threshold is the smallest measurable input, below which no
output
change can be identified.
This minimum value defines the threshold of the instrument.
 Resolution:
The smallest change in input that can be produce detectable
and measureable output.
Least count of the instrument is taken as the resolution.
 ACCURACY:
The closeness of the measured value with the true value.
Error = measured value – True value
 PRECISION:
The capability of an instrument to provide the same reading
repeatedly when used
each time to measure the same signal input. (Reproducibility of
instrument)
 Dynamic Characteristic
 Dynamic error:
the difference between the true value and measured value with
no static
error.
 Speed of response:
It is define as rapidity of the measurement system that responds to
the
changes in the measuring variable.

 Measuring Lag:
The delay in the response of an instrument to a change in the
measured
quantity/ input signal.
Since Instrument does not react to a change in input immediately.
 Different Transducers
1. TEMPERATURE TRANSDUCERS
THERMOCOUPLES:
When two wires/metals with dissimilar electrical properties are joined at
both ends and one junction is made hot and the other cold, a small electric
current is produced proportional to the difference in the temperature.
Seebeck discovered this effect. It is true no matter how the ends are joined
so the cold end may be joined at a sensitive millivolt meter. The hot
junction forms the sensor end.
2. BIMETALLIC TYPES
 It is a well-known principle that if two metals are rigidly joined
together as a two-layer strip and heated, the difference in the
expansion rate causes the strip to bend.

 In the industrial type, the strip is twisted into a long thin coil
inside a tube. One end is fixed at the bottom of the tube and
the other turns and moves a pointer on a dial. The outward
appearance is very similar to the pressure type. They can be
made to operate limit switches and set off alarms or act as a
thermostat. (e.g. on a boiler).
3. GLASS THERMOMETER

The ordinary glass thermometer is also a complete system. Again

the bulb is the sensor but the column of liquid and the scale on
the glass is the processor and indicator. Mercury is used for hot
temperatures and coloured alcohol for cold temperatures.
 4. Resistance thermometer
 Resistance thermometers, also called resistance temperature
detectors (RTDs), are sensors used to measure temperature.
 RTDs, which have higher accuracy and repeatability, are slowly
replacing thermocouples in industrial applications below 600 °C
 In RTD devices; Copper, Nickel and Platinum are widely used metals. These
three metals are having different resistance variations with respective to the
temperature variations. That is called resistance-temperature characteristics.
 Platinum has the temperature range of 650oC, and then the Copper and Nickel
have 120oC and 300oC respectively.

Construction:
 PRESSURE TRANSDUCERS
Pressure sensors either convert the pressure into mechanical
movement or into an electrical output. Complete gauges not only
sense the pressure but indicate them on a dial or scale.

Mechanical movement is produced with the following elements.

1. Bourdon Tube.

2. Spring and Piston.

3. Bellows and capsules.

4. Diaphragm.
 1. BOURDON TUBE 2.PISTON TYPE
 The Bourdon tube is a hollow tube with an
 The pressure acts directly on the piston
elliptical cross section. When a pressure
and compresses the spring.The position
difference exists between the inside and
of the piston is directly related to the
outside, the tube tends to straighten out
pressure. A window in the outer case
and the end moves. The movement is
allows the pressure to be indicated. This
usually coupled to a needle on a dial to
type is usually used in hydraulics where
make a complete gauge. It can also be
the ability to withstand shock, vibration
connected to a secondary device such as an
and sudden pressure changes is needed
air nozzle to control air pressure or to a
(shock proof gauge). The piston
suitable transducer to convert it into an
movement may be connected to a
electric signal. This type can be used for
secondary device to convert movement
measuring pressure difference.
into an electrical signal.
 CAPSULES AND BELLOWS
A bellows is made of several capsules.
These are hollow flattened structures
made from thin metal plate. When
pressurised the bellows expand and
produce mechanical movement. If the
bellows is encapsulated inside an outer
container, then the movement is
proportional to the difference between
the pressure on the inside and outside.
Bellows and single capsules are used in
many instruments. They are very useful
for measuring small pressures.
DIAPHRAGMS
These are similar in principle to the
capsule but the diaphragm is usually
very thin and perhaps made of rubber.
The diaphragm expands when very
small pressures are applied. The
movement is transmitted to a pointer on
a dial through a fine mechanical linkage.
 ELECTRICAL PRESSURE TRANSDUCERS
There are various ways of converting the mechanical movement of the
preceding types into an electric signal. The following are types that
directly produce an electric signal.
1. Strain Gauge types.
1. STRAIN GAUGE TYPES: 2. Piezo electric types.
Strain gauges are small elements that are fixed to a surface that is
strained. The change in length of the element produces changes in the
electrical resistance.
This is processed and converted into a voltage. A typical pressure
transducer would contain a metal diaphragm which bends under
2. PIEZO ELECTRIC TYPES
pressure.
The element used here is a piece of crystalline material that produces an electric
charge on its surface when it is mechanically stressed. The electric charge may be
converted into voltage. This principle is used in the pick up crystal of a record
player, in microphones and even to generate a spark in a gas ignitor. When placed
inside a pressure transducer, the pressure is converted into an electric signal.
 SPEED TRANSDUCERS
Speed transducers are widely used for measuring the output speed of a
rotating object. There are many types using different principles and most of
them produce an electrical output.
1.OPTICAL TYPES
These use a light beam and a light sensitive cell. The beam is either
reflected or interrupted so that pulses are produced for each revolution.
The pulses are then counted over a fixed time and the speed obtained.
Electronic processing is required to time the pulses and turn the result into
an analogue or digital
2. MAGNETIC PICKsignal.
UPS
These use an inductive coil placed near to the rotating body. A small
magnet on the body generates a pulse every time it passes the coil. If the
body is made of ferrous material, it will work without a magnet. A
discontinuity in the surface such as a notch will cause a change in the
magnetic field and generate a pulse. The pulses must be processed to
produce an analogue or digital output.
 FLOW METERS

There are many hundreds of types of flow meters depending on the make and
application. They may be classified roughly as follows.

1. VARIABLE AREA TYPES

2. DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE TYPES
 VARIABLE AREA TYPES
There are two main types of this meter
• Float type (Rotameter)

FLOAT TYPE
The float is inside a tapered tube. The fluid flows through the
annular gap around the edge of the float. The restriction causes a
pressure drop over the float and the pressure forces the float
upwards. Because the tube is tapered, the restriction is decreased
as the float moves up. Eventually a level is reached where the
restriction is just right to produce a pressure force that
counteracts the weight of the float. The level of the float
indicates the flow rate. If the flow changes the float moves up or
down to find a new balance position
 DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE FLOW METERS

These are a range of meters that convert flow rate into a

differential pressure. The important types of flow meters:

ORIFICE METERS.
• VENTURI tube
• NOZZLE METERS
Orifice plate
Advantages
Low cost
High differential pressure generted
Can be used in wide range of pipe
sizes
Disadvantages
High permanent pressure loss
implies higher pumping cost.
Cannot be used for dirty fluids,
slurries or wet steam as erosion will
alter DP generated.
Venturi tube

Advantages
Very small permanent pressure loss.
Available in very large pipe sizes.
Can handle suspended solids.
Disadvantages
High cost.
Generally not useful below 15cm pipe dia.
More difficult to inspect due to its
installation in the pipe.
 PROCESS CONTROL
PROCESS:
A systematic series of actions or operations producing an end result or product.
The objective of a process is to convert certain raw materials into desired
products using available sources of energy in the most economical way.
Ex. Food processing, power generation plant.
CONTROL: means methods to force parameters in the environment to have
specific
PROCESS values.
may be controlled by measuring a variable representing the
desired state of the product and automatically adjusting one of the other
variables of the process. A desired quantity is kept at set point
irrespective of external influences.
AUTOMATIC PROCESS CONTROL: is the maintenance of a
desired value of a quantity or conditions by measuring the existing
value, comparing it to the desired value and employing the difference
to initiate action for reducing this difference. This requires a feedback
control system which does not require human aid.
 Areas- Process control
 Processing industries such as petroleum, chemical, steel, power and food for the
control of assembly operations, work flow, heat treating and similar variables.
 Goods manufacturers such as automobile parts, refrigerators and electronic
equipments like television sets, radio etc. for the control of assembly operations,
heat treating and similar variables.
 Transportation systems such as railways, airplanes, free missiles and ships.
Why process control need
 Increase in productivity (increase in quantity or number of products) helps to
increase the efficiency of both man and machine.
 Improvement in quality of products by meeting the product specifications
overcoming operational constraints.
 improvement by way of savings in processing raw materials, savings in energy,
effective utilization of capital and human labour etc.
 Optimize the performance of the process to meet environmental regulations.
Process control loop
 Sensors and Transducers
 It is an element which senses or detects or responds to the input
quantity or parameter and produce an equivalent output signal in
same form (sensor) or different form (Transducer
 Ex. RTD, Thermistor, Thermocouple (for Temperature
measurement), Bourdon tube, Bellows (for force and pressure
measurement) Etc.
Controller
 Controller are devices that take the sensor output and make the
necessary adjustment to the manipulated variable with the help of
actuator to keep the output under control.

 Ex. Microcontroller, PLC etc.

 Actuator
 Actuators act as control elements which responds to the
controller output to make the necessary adjustment to the input
or manipulated variable.
 It may be Hydraulic, Pneumatic or Electrical actuating system.
 EX. Valves, Solenoids, Relays, Motors etc.
Basic Terms in Process control Loop
 Controlled variable : A quantity or condition that is
measured and controlled variable. Flow, Level, Pressure etc.
 Set point: It is the range or specified limit within which the
process output should stay within.
 It acts as a reference point and is given to the controller.
 Manipulated Variable: It is the quantity of condition that is
varied by controller so as to effect the value of controlled
variable.
 MODES OD CONTROLLERS
 Each mode of control has specific advantages and limitations

 On-0ff control
 Proportional + Integral + Derivative (PID)
 On-off control
 This is the simplest form of control
 There is only two action On and Off
 PID CONTROLLER INTRODUCTION
 A Proportional-Integral-Derivative controller (PID controller) is a generic
controller widely used in industrial control systems.
 PID controllers can be used to regulate flow, temperature, pressure, level, and
many other industrial process variables.
 PID controller describes the mathematic calculations that are applied to calculate
the error between the current result and the desired set-point.
 PID control equation involves three separate parameters; the Proportional,
Integral and Derivative terms.
 Proportional term responds instaneously to the current error (providing instaneous
response).
 Integral term (past errors) responds to the accumulation of errors in the form of
average (providing a slow response that drives the steady-state error towards
Zero).
 Derivative term (future errors) responds to the rate at which the error is changing.
PID Controller Output:
 Proportional controller
 Proportional control mode is the main driving force of controller.
 It changes the controller output in proportion to the error.
 If the error gets bigger, the control action gets bigger, more control action is
needed to correct large errors.
 Adjustable setting for proportional control is called Controller Gain (Kp).
 If the controller gain is set too high the control loop will begin oscillating and
become unstable.
 If the controller gain is set too low, it will not respond adequately to
disturbances or set point changes.
 The main purpose of the proportional control is minimize the fluctuations that
occur within the system.
 when the process and set point values are equal, the process will generally
stabilize somewhere below the set point.
NOTE:
 If KP increases then overshoot
increases.
 If KP decreases then overshoot
decreases.

Formula for P controller:

P= Kp e(t)
 Integral Control Action
 To eliminate offset need to include Integral action.
 Offset= Set point – Error
 The integral sums the error term over time.
 The result is that even a small error term will cause the integral component
increase slowly.
 The integral response will continuously increase over time unless the error is
ZERO.
 Steady state error is the final diff. between the Process variable and Set point.
 Derivative Control Action

 The derivative component causes the output to decrease if the process

variable increasing rapidly.
 The derivative response is proportional to rate of change of process variable.
 If increasing the derivative time (Td) parameter will cause the control system
to react more strongly to changes in the error term and increases the speed of
the overall control system response.
 If Kd Increases process stability increases.
 According to derivative term in PID controller works very fast.

NOTE: In industry use control system very small derivative time is used
because, the derivative response is highly sensitive to noise in the process
variable.
 INDUSTRIAL INSTRUMENTATION

The main concepts used in the industrial instrumentation

 Process and instrumentation drawing

 Piping and connections symbols
 Instrument types and locations symbols
 Valve symbol
 P and ID process example.
 Difference between transducer and transmitter
 Transmitter
Example of P and ID sheet
 Diff. bet. Transducer & Transmitter
Transducer
It is convert one form of energy
into another form like equivalent
voltage.
Signal form is like mili-volt, Volt
etc.
Less power consumption while
operating time.
Electromagnetic interference is
high.
Transmitter
It is convert electrical signal into
standard form .
Signal form is only 4-20 mA.
High power required to perform
operation.
Electromagnetic interference is
low.
Differential Pressure Transmitter