REVIEW OF CAMEL

BRUCELLOSIS AND IT'S

ZOONOTIC IMPORTANCE IN
ETHIOPIA.
 INTRODUCTION

◆ Camels, specifically the Bactrian and Arabian species, have distinct

geographic distributions and habitats.

◆ The dromedary camel, also known as the Arabian camel, is native to

the Middle East and North Africa and is well-adapted to arid and

desert environments.
◆ The Bactrian camel, native to Central Asia, thrives in cold and harsh

climates.
◆ Camels are important to nomadic herders in developing countries,

providing transportation, income, and food security through milk,

meat, and hides. The global camel population is estimated to be

around 27 million heads.

◆ Camels are highly susceptible to bacterial pathogens,
including Brucella species, which cause brucellosis.
◆ Brucellosis is a significant concern as it has serious
zoonotic and economic implications.
◆ Infected camels experience reproductive issues, and
humans can become infected through the
consumption of contaminated food products or direct
contact with infected animals.
◆ Brucellosis is widespread in several African countries,
including Ethiopia, causing productivity losses in
domestic species.
◆ Despite this, research on camel brucellosis in Ethiopia
is limited.
◆ The prevalence of camel brucellosis in Ethiopia varies
across regions, with some areas showing high levels of
infection.
◆ Reproductive problems in infected camels have
implications for food security and livelihoods.
◆ Understanding the current status of the disease is
crucial for protecting both animals and humans in
Ethiopia.
◆ Control measures for brucellosis include vaccination,
testing, and culling of infected animals.
◆ Addressing the disease is crucial to improve camel
health, safeguard public health, and support sustainable
development.
◆ The One Health approach, which recognizes the
interconnectedness of animal, human, and
environmental health, is essential for comprehensive
control and prevention of camel brucellosis.
Collaboration between veterinary, medical, and public
health professionals is necessary to develop effective
◆ A comprehensive review aims to analyze the
prevalence, transmission, and zoonotic implications of
camel brucellosis in Ethiopia and propose
recommendations for surveillance and control
measures.
◆ A comprehensive review is needed to address
knowledge gaps and inform disease control and
prevention strategies.
 LITERATURE REVIEW
ETIOLOGY

◆ Taxonomic structure
◆ Brucellosis is a disease caused by various species of the
genus Brucella, affecting both animals and humans.
◆ The taxonomic structure of Brucella places it in the
Domain Bacteria, Phylum Proteobacteria, Class
Alphaproteobacteria, Order Rhizobiales, Family
Brucellaceae, and Genus Brucella.
◆ Different species within this genus are pathogenic to
specific hosts, such as cattle, goats, sheep, pigs, dogs,
and desert woodrats.
◆ In dromedary camels, Brucella abortus, Brucella melitensis,
Brucella suis, and Brucella ovis can cause the disease.
◆ For humans, Brucella melitensis, Brucella abortus, Brucella
suis, and Brucella canis are known to be infectious.
◆ Each species of Brucella exhibits distinct characteristics and
preferences for hosts, influencing their pathogenicity.
◆ Understanding the taxonomic structure of Brucella is crucial
for accurate identification, classification, and research on
these bacterial pathogens that pose significant risks to
animal and human health.
-Positive for catalase, oxidase, and urease enzymes, with
limited carbon source utilization.
- Nitrate reducers, converting nitrate to nitrite.
- Susceptible to heat, sunlight, acidic conditions, and
common disinfectants.
◆ Survival:
- Survives for 4 to 6 days in urine, 6 weeks in dust, and 4
to 10 weeks in water, and up to 75 days in an aborted
fetus.
- Survives in dairy products for several months.
 Physical and biochemical characteristics

◆ Physical Characteristics:
- Camel Brucella species are small, Gram-negative coccobacilli,
approximately 0.5-0.7 micrometers in diameter and 0.5-1.5
micrometers in length.
- They are non-motile and may produce a capsule aiding
immune system evasion.
◆ Biochemical Characteristics:
- Require specific growth conditions including increased CO2
levels for optimal growth.
- Facultative intracellular pathogens capable of surviving and
replicating inside host cells.
◆ Impact:
- Main species affecting humans are B. abortus and B.
melitensis, causing brucellosis.
- Understanding these characteristics aids in diagnosis,
prevention, and control strategies for camel brucellosis
 EPIDEMIOLOGY

◆ Camel brucellosis has been reported in all camel-

keeping nations, except Australia, since as early as 1931.
◆ The disease is prevalent in countries with poorly
standardized animal and public health programs, and its
distribution is linked to changing husbandry practices,
the number of affected camels, and the virulence of the
organisms.
◆ Camel brucellosis is highly prevalent in Ethiopia's
pastoral and agro-pastoral areas.
◆ The disease can spread through camel milk, especially in dry
and arid zones, where close contact between infected and
susceptible camels promotes its transmission.
◆ While the three Brucella species known to cause brucellosis in
camels can theoretically cause infection anywhere, the
epidemic peak occurs from February to July, closely related to
the months associated with delivery and abortion in animals.
◆ Despite camels' susceptibility to Brucella infection, isolation of
Brucella organisms from camel samples is rare, but successful
attempts have been made to isolate Brucella from milk.
 Global distribution of camel brucellosis

◆ Brucellosis is a global bacterial disease affecting

animals and humans, with the first reported case in
camels dating back to 1931 in Russia.
◆ The disease is prevalent in regions with poor animal
and public health programs, particularly in Africa, the
Mediterranean, Middle East, and parts of Asia and Latin
America.
● While it has been eradicated from developed countries
such as Australia, Canada, Israel, Japan, New Zealand,
and Europe, it remains uncontrolled in many areas.
● Camel brucellosis is endemic in countries of the
Mediterranean basin, Middle East, Central Asia, and the
Horn of Africa, posing significant economic losses and
zoonotic risks.
Distribution of camel brucellosis in Africa

◆ Camel brucellosis in Africa remains poorly

documented, with limited reports submitted to the
World Organization for Animal Health (OIE).
◆ The disease is cosmopolitan and affects economically
important domestic animals, including camels and
wildlife. Persistent cases have been observed in
countries like Tanzania, Nigeria, Uganda, Kenya,
Zimbabwe, and Somalia, posing threats to human and
animal health.
◆ In East Africa, it's endemic in IGAD member countries,
causing high economic losses and zoonotic risks.
◆ Countries with extensive husbandry practices, such as
Chad and Ethiopia, show seroprevalence rates of 3.8%
and 5.5%, respectively.
◆ Nigeria reports cases from nearly all camel-producing
areas.
Distribution of camel brucellosis in Ethiopia

◆ In Ethiopia, camel brucellosis is a significant concern,

particularly in pastoral areas where the disease has
been reported in camels with varying prevalence rates.
◆ The country has a substantial camel population, with
the majority residing in the Ethiopian Somali and Afar
administrative regions.
◆ Camel production in Ethiopia offers potential economic
benefits, especially in arid and semi-arid areas where
camels thrive despite challenging environmental
conditions.
◆ However, the high prevalence of brucellosis in camels,
cattle, and small ruminants in pastoral and agro-pastoral
areas poses a risk to both animal and human health.
◆ Consumption of raw milk by pastoralists contributes to
the transmission of the disease, highlighting the
importance of addressing brucellosis in Ethiopia for
sustainable camel production and public health.
Sources and method of transmission

◆ Camels are highly susceptible to brucellosis, caused by

B. abortus and B. melitensis, and can become infected
through contact with other infected animals. In
pastoral areas, where camels are kept alongside sheep
and goats, there is evidence of active transmission
between these animals.
◆ Transmission of the disease can occur through
ingestion of contaminated feed, skin penetration,
inhalation, udder contamination during milking, and
congenital infection during parturition.
◆ The primary shedding routes of Brucella organisms in
camels are uterine fluids and placenta.
◆ Factors such as large herd size, sharing of watering
points with ruminants, and inadequate hygienic
practices under pastoral management favor the
transmission of camel brucellosis.
◆ In humans, brucellosis can be transmitted through
contact with infected animals, consumption of
unpasteurized dairy products and undercooked meat,
drinking camel urine, and aerosol transmission.
◆ The consumption of traditional delicacies such as raw
liver can also lead to human infection.
Risk Factor

◆ Management factor:
- Management practices such as large herd size, active
abortions, and loose housing contribute to the
transmission of brucellosis in camels.
- Calving practices and separate calving pens can help
minimize exposure of infected animals.
- Population density is positively associated with disease
prevalence due to increased contact between susceptible
and infected animals.
Management practices aimed at eliminating infected males
and minimizing exposure to aborted tissue can reduce the
incidence of the disease.
◆ Host Factor:
- Susceptibility to infection in camels depends on factors
such as age, sex, breed, and pregnancy status.
- Younger animals are more resistant to infection, while
sexually mature animals are more susceptible.
- Female camels play a significant role in disseminating the
disease through uterine discharge and milk.
◆ Agent Factors:
- Brucella organisms can survive within host leukocytes
and utilize neutrophils and macrophages for protection.
- The inability of leukocytes to kill the bacteria effectively
at the primary site of infection contributes to
dissemination to other sites in the body
◆ Environmental and Climatic Factor:
- The survival of Brucella organisms in the environment
plays a crucial role in the epidemiology of the disease.
- Atmospheric conditions and seasons can influence the
management and contact of infected and susceptible hosts.
- In dry areas where water resources are scarce,
congregation of mixed ruminants at water points can
facilitate disease spread.
- The coincidence of parturition in the wet season enhances
the viability of the organisms in the environment, increasing
the chance of infecting susceptible animals.
 Immune response

● During Brucella infection, the body's immune system

triggers both humoral and cell-mediated responses.
Factors like strain virulence, inoculum size, and host
characteristics can influence the strength and duration
of these responses. While the humoral response is
important, the cell-mediated response is critical for
defending against Brucella.
◆ The humoral immune response involves the
production of antibodies such as IgM and IgG, with IgM
being the initial immunoglobulin produced after
exposure, followed by IgG. Age at exposure and the
number of organisms administered can impact the
magnitude and duration of the antibody response.
● Following standard dose exposure, IgG antibody levels
decrease over time, with residual antibodies primarily
IgM. Infected animals may not produce IgG antibodies
until later stages, posing challenges in distinguishing
them from vaccinated non-infected animals.
◆ Conversely, the cellular immune response entails T-
lymphocytes releasing lymphokines to activate
macrophages. Brucella bacteria can survive in
macrophage cells, and recovery from infection relies on
increased bactericidal activity of phagocytic cells. The
role of cytotoxic cells in the immune response to
Brucella is still unclear, necessitating further research
to fully comprehend protective immunity to Brucella.
 Pathogenesis

◆ The pathogenesis of Brucella infection is influenced by

factors such as exposure dose, virulence of the Brucella
species, and the host's natural resistance.
◆ Brucella can enter the body through various routes and
has a predilection for specific organs and tissues, such
as the uterus, udder, testicles, lymph nodes, and joints.
● The ability of Brucella to survive and replicate within
phagocytic and non-phagocytic cells contributes to its
pathogenic potential.
● Resistance to infection depends on the host's ability to
prevent the establishment of infection and destroy
invading organisms.
● Once in the bloodstream, Brucella can disseminate to
multiple organs, particularly reticulo-endothelial
tissues.
◆ In pregnant animals, Brucella can reach the placenta
and fetus.
◆ During the acute phase of infection, large numbers of
Brucella may be present in semen, while excretion may
decrease or cease altogether during chronic infection.
◆ Pathological changes may be observed in various
organs, including the uterus, udder, testicles, lymph
nodes, joint bursa, and placenta.
 Clinical manifestations

◆ Clinical Manifestations of Brucellosis in Camels:

◆ - Clinical signs of brucellosis in camels are rare, making
them silent carriers of the disease.
◆ - Infection in breeding camelids causes fewer abortions
than in bovines and small ruminants.
◆ - Primary clinical manifestations are related to the
reproductive tract, including late-term abortions,
stillbirths, weak calves, retained fetal membranes,
reduced fertility, and lower milk yield.
◆ - Non-pregnant dromedaries infected with B. abortus
may exhibit mild symptoms such as reduced appetite,
slight lameness, and bilateral lacrimation.
◆ - In male camels, inflammation and enlargement of the
epididymis, orchitis, and inflammation of other
accessory sex organs are common.
◆ - Hydro bursitis, leading to swelling of the bursa, is
often observed in brucellosis-positive dromedaries.
Diagnostic method

The diagnosis of brucellosis in camels involves various

serological and molecular methods:
1. Complement Fixation Test (CFT): This test is considered
the confirmatory test for serological detection of infected
animals. It detects predominantly IgG antibodies and
distinguishes reactions caused by other factors like
vaccines and other bacterial infections.
2. Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA): ELISA
has been used for the detection of Brucella antibodies in
camel sera and milk. It is considered an important
alternative to conventional serodiagnosis of camelid
brucellosis and has been found to be more sensitive than
other tests.
3. Milk Ring Test (MRT): The MRT is used to detect
antibodies in milk. However, camel milk cannot be used
for MRT due to the lack of agglutinating substances
required for the test. A modified milk ring test has been
established for camels by adding Brucella-negative cow
milk to camel milk.
4. Molecular Method - Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR):
PCR is a sensitive, fast, and relatively cheap method used
in the detection of Brucella DNA in tissues and body
fluids. It is more reliable than serological tests and can
differentiate between different species of Brucella.
These diagnostic methods play a crucial role in the
accurate detection and differentiation of brucellosis in
camels.
Treatment

◆ Treatment of brucellosis in camels is generally not

recommended due to high treatment failure rates, cost,
and the challenges of maintaining infected animals in
an eradication program.
◆ However, some studies have shown that a dose of
100mg of broad long-acting tetracycline given every 3
days for 6 weeks has achieved a 75% cure rate.
◆ Oxytetracycline and streptomycin are considered
effective in inhibiting protein synthesis and providing
long-lasting concentrations in the plasma. A
combination of quinolones and rifampicin has also
shown promising results.
◆ While using antibiotics may save valuable animals from
being culled, it is uncertain if herd-level antibiotic
treatment can be successful.
Zoonotic Importance.

◆ Brucellosis is an important zoonotic disease with

significant public health implications, causing over
500,000 human cases annually worldwide. It primarily
affects farm laborers, slaughterhouse workers, butchers,
shepherds, and veterinarians, and is transmitted through
contact with infected animals or consumption of
unpasteurized dairy products and meat. In endemic
areas, pastoralists are at high risk of infection.
◆ The disease can present with a range of symptoms
and is often misdiagnosed due to similarities with
other illnesses. Diagnosis is typically confirmed
through bacteriological and molecular methods or
serological tests.
◆ The incubation period for brucellosis is variable, and
chronic infection with recurring symptoms can occur.
◆ There are no established vaccination or eradication
strategies for camel brucellosis, and the disease
remains under-prioritized globally.
Socioeconomic importance

◆ Brucellosis, a disease affecting camels, is characterized

by abortion, birth of non-viable offspring, and
reproductive issues in both male and female animals. It
can lead to infertility, prolonged calving intervals, and
decreased productivity in camels.
◆ The disease also has implications for livestock trade,
affecting the import and export of animals. In racing
camels, subclinical brucellosis can reduce performance
and productivity.
◆ The economic impact includes the cost of treatment
and long-term debilitation of affected individuals.
Additionally, the chronic nature of the disease poses
challenges for healthcare services.
Prevention and control.

◆ Brucellosis, a disease caused by B.abortus, B. melitensis,

and B. suis, poses a significant threat to human health
worldwide. While it has been eradicated in some regions
like Europe, Australia, Canada, Israel, Japan, and New
Zealand, it remains uncontrolled in Africa, parts of the
Middle East, Asia, and Latin America. Unfortunately, there
have been no studies on eradication strategies or
vaccination for camel brucellosis.
◆ To mitigate the prevalence of brucellosis, the
development of safer and more effective vaccines or
the implementation of other regulatory programs is
crucial.
◆ The control strategy chosen depends on factors such
as infection prevalence in different animal species and
human clinical incidence. However, an efficient animal
disease surveillance network is a prerequisite for any
control program.
◆ In countries where camels are raised, control measures
for camel brucellosis should be tailored to suit local
conditions. Despite low prevalence, positive animals
can become future infection sources, leading to low
productivity and posing a public health risk.
Vaccination and 'test and slaughter' or 'test and no
breeding' policies can be used in eradication
campaigns for dairy and racing herds.
◆ While vaccination is important, it alone cannot
guarantee success. Castrating serologically positive
bulls, not breeding positive females, and vaccinating
only replacement female camels less than one year old
can establish an immunized herd without inducing
abortions or excretion of the vaccine strain through
milk.
◆ National programs should include camel brucellosis in
their control and eradication efforts, and individuals
working with camels should take precautions to prevent
contamination.
◆ Eradicating brucellosis in small ruminants has proven
challenging, and the same complexity and expense may
apply to camel brucellosis. Therefore, controlling camel
brucellosis should be a priority in countries where camels
are raised. Vaccination of uninfected animals is
considered the most effective and economical means of
defense against brucellosis
Knowledge, attitude and practice of population
towards camel brucellosis.
◆ Camel brucellosis is a zoonotic disease caused by Brucella
bacteria, primarily found in Ethiopia where camels are
important livestock.
◆ Lack of knowledge among camel owners and handlers about
the disease's symptoms and zoonotic potential contributes to
its spread and poses a risk to human health. While attitudes
towards control measures are generally positive, traditional
practices like consuming raw camel milk hinder efforts.
◆ Vaccination is the most effective prevention method, but
coverage is low, and other control measures such as
proper disposal of aborted fetuses and isolating
infected animals are not widely practiced.
◆ Brucellosis is a major zoonotic disease in Ethiopia,
particularly where camels are present, and increased
awareness, education, and improved control measures
are necessary for public and animal health.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

◆ Camels in Ethiopia play a crucial role in the lives of

pastoralists, but their productivity is hindered by diseases like
Brucellosis.
◆ The disease is increasing globally and urgent action is needed
to prevent further spread.
◆ Brucellosis has serious implications for both animal and
human health, and controlling and preventing it requires
awareness campaigns, vaccination programs, and suitable
laboratories.
◆ To minimize risks, people should avoid consuming
unpasteurized dairy products, and proper disposal of
aborted fetuses and contaminated materials is
essential.
◆ Active infection control measures, public health
education, interdisciplinary collaboration, and strict
control of illegal camel movements are recommended.
Hygienic measures should also be taken during milking
and when in contact with camels.