Vijaykumar Dandwani

(M.Tech. VLSI Design)

Dept : Electrical Engineering
Semester: 2nd
Subject: DCC
Chapter : 1 Basics of Electrical
Engineering
LECT 2
Today’s topic
Effect of temperature of Resistance
Resistance temperature Coefficient
Effect of temperature on Resistivity
Resistivity and Temperature Co-efficient of
Resistance for different materials
Effect of temperature on Resistance
 Effect of temperature on pure metals: at low temperature the
ions in the pure metals are almost stationary. But as the
temperature of the pure metals increase the kinetic energy of
the ions also increase.
 Thus they start to vibrate about their mean position. Such
vibration of the ions causes the obstruction to the electrons
which are flowing.
 Hence resistance of pure metals like copper, aluminum
increases linearly with increase in temperature. Thus the
pure metals have the positive temperature co-efficient.
Effect of temperature on Resistance
 Effect of temperature on alloys: the resistance of the
alloys increases with increase in temperature. But the
rate of increase with increase in temperature is very
small.
 In some of the alloys like Eureka, manganin the increase
in resistance with increase in temperature is negligible.
Effect of temperature on Resistance
Effect of temperature on Resistance
 Effect of temperature on insulators: at low temperature
the number of free electrons are very less in the
insulators. As the temperature of the insulator increases
the number of free electrons also increases which
decreases its resistance.
 It means the resistance of the insulators like paper
rubber glass decreases with increase in temperature.
 So the insulators have the negative temperature co-
efficient.
Effect of temperature on Resistance
 Effect of temperature on Semi-conductors: at low
temperature the number of free electrons are very less in the
semiconductor and the most of the electrons are bounded in
the covalent.
 Now as the temperature of the semi conductor increases the
covalent bonds are broken. Thus the number of free
electrons increases which increases its conductivity and
decreases its resistance.
 It means the of the semiconductor like silicon germanium
decreases with increase in temperature.
Effect of temperature on Resistance
 Thus semiconductors have negative temperature co
efficient.
Resistance temperature coefficient
 Consider a conductor having a resistance of R0 at 0 C.
now as the temperature of this conductor is increased
from 0 C to t1 C, its resistance is also increased from R0
to R1.
 R0 = initial resistance
 R1 = Resistance at t1 C
 ΔR = R1 – R0 = change in resistance
 The change in resistance depends on following things
Resistance temperature coefficient
 Initialresistance
 Change in temperature
 Nature of material
 R1 – R 0 ∞ R0 (t1 – 0)
 R1 – R0 = α0 R0 t1
 R1 = R0 + α0 R0 t1
 R1 = R0 (1 + α0 t1)
 In above equation α0 is constant which is known as
resistance temperature coefficient (RTC) of conductor.
Resistance temperature coefficient
 α0 = R1 – R0 / R0 t1 = ΔR / R0 t1
 α0 = change in resistance per C / initial resistance
 If R0 = 1 Ω & t1 = 1 C then α0 = ΔR
 Resistance Temperature Coefficient: the increase in
resistance per ohm original resistance per C rise in
temperature is known as resistance temperature
coefficient.
 Its unit is 1 / C
Resistance temperature coefficient
Resistance temperature coefficient
 The resistance versus temperature curve for the metal is
shown in figure.
 For copper its resistance is 100 Ω at 0 C and it will
increase up to 100 C linearly.
 The resistance of the copper is almost zero at
temperature -234.5 C.
 This temperature is known as inferred temperature.
Resistance temperature coefficient
 Value of α at 0 C
 R1 = R0 (1 + α0 t1)
 Value of α at t1 C (α1)
 R0 – R1 ∞ R1 (0 – t1)

 R0 – R1 = α1 R1 (0-t1)
 R0 = R1 + α1 R1 (0-t1)
 R0 = R1 (1 + α1(-t1) ) = R1 ( 1 - α1 t1)
 R1 α1 t1 = R1 – R0 so α1 = R1 – R0 / R1t1
Resistance temperature coefficient
 We can also find
 α1 = α0 / 1+ α0t1
 Value of α at Temperature t2 C
 α2 = 1 / 1/ α1 + (t2 – t1)
Effect of temperature on Resistivity
 The resistivity of the materials also depends on the
temperature.
 Similar to the resistance temperature coefficient, the
temperature coefficient of the resistivity can be find as
below
 ρ1 = Resistivity at temp t1
 ρ2 = Resistivity at temp t2
 ρ1 = ρ0 (1 + α0t1 )
 ρ2 = ρ0 (1 + α0t2 ) = ρ1 (1 + α1(t2 – t1) )
Effect of temperature on Resistivity
Effect of Electric Current
 As we know that the flow of current in a conductor is
nothing but the flow of free electrons. These free
electrons collide with other electron when they pass
through the molecules of the atoms of the conductor.
 The collision of these free electrons with other electrons
produces the heat. It means the flow of current in the
conductor produces the heat in it.
Electrical Units
 Electric Work: the electric work is said to be done when
there is a transfer of charge in the electric circuit. Its unit
is Joule
 W = V x Q Joule or W = V x It Joule
 Where Q = Total Charge (Coulomb), t = Time (Sec)
 If V = 1 Volt and Q = 1 Coulomb then W = 1 Joule
 Joule: 1 joule work done if the charge of 1 coulomb
moves through a potential difference of 1 volt
Electrical Units
 Electric Power: the rate at which the electric work is done
in any electric circuit is known as electric power.
 Its units watt or Joule / sec
 P = Electric work / t = W / t
 P = V I t / t = V I watt or Joule / sec
 If V = 1 volt and I = 1 Amp then P = 1 watt
 Watt: power consumed by electric circuit is said to be 1
watt if the potential difference of 1 volt across the electric
circuit produces a current of 1 amp
Electrical Units
 The electric power can also be expressed as
 P = V I = I2 R = V2 /R
 Other units of power
 1 kW = 1000 Watt
 1 MW = 106 Watt
 1hp = 735.5 Watt
 The hp means horse power. The mechanical unit of hp is
bhp. It is know as brake horse power.
Electrical Units
 Electric Energy: the total amount of electric work to be
done in any electric circuit is known as electric energy.
 Its unit is joule or watt-sec or Wh or kWh
 E = Power x Time
 E = P x t = V I t Joule or watt-sec
 If P = 1 watt and t = 1 sec then E = 1 Joule.
 Joule : the energy consumed in the electric circuit is said
to be 1 joule if the power of 1 watt is utilized for 1 sec
Electrical Units
 Other units of Energy
 1 Watt-hour
 1 kWh = 1 x 103 watt = 1 x 103 x 3600 Joule
 1 kWh = 1 Unit
 The electricity bill is charged based on the kWh which is
commonly known as unit.
Mechanical Units
 Mass: the quantity of the matter contained by the body
is known as mass. Its unit is kg. it is denoted by m
 Other units of mass
 1 quintal = 100 kg
 1 tonne = 10 quintals = 1000 kg
 Velocity: the distance travelled per unit time is known as
velocity. Its unit is m/s. it is denoted by v
 v = Distance / Time m/s
Mechanical Units
 Acceleration: the rate of change of velocity is known as
acceleration. Its unit is m/s2. it is denoted by a.
 a = Velocity / Time m/s2
 Force: the unit of force is Newton N. it is denoted by F.
it can be given by F = m x a
 Where m=mass in kg, a=acceleration in m/s 2
 Newton: 1 newton of force is required to give an
acceleration of 1 m/s2 to a mass of 1 kg
Mechanical Units
 Torque: the torque is defined as the product of force and
the radial distance of pulley on which the force occurs.
Its unit is N-m. it is denoted by T
 T = F x r N-m
 Weight: the gravitational force which pulls down the
body towards earth is known as weight. Its unit is
Newton N. It is denoted by W
 W = m x g Newton where m = mass, g = Gravitational
acceleration= 9.81 m/s2
Mechanical Units
 Mechanical Work: the mechanical work is defined as the
product of force acting on the body and the distance
covered by the body due to given force. Its unit is N-m
or Joule.
 W = F x d where F = force and d = distance travelled
 Joule: mechanical work done is said to be 1 joule if the
force of 1 N moves a body through a distance of 1 m in
the direction of application
Mechanical Units
 Mechanical Power: the rate of doing mechanical work is
known as mechanical power. It is denoted by P. its unit
is Joule/sec or watt.
 P = Work done / Time Joule/sec
 1 Joule / sec = 1 watt
 1 hp = 735.5 watt
Mechanical Units
 Mechanical Energy: the capacity to do work is known as
mechanical energy. It is denoted by E. its unit is Joule or
watt-sec. there are two types of mechanical energy.
 Kinetic Energy: the energy possessed by the moving
body is known as kinetic energy. If the body having a
mass of m kg moving at velocity of v m/s then the
kinetic energy can be written as
 K.E = ½ mv2 Joule where m=mass of body v= velocity
 Potential Energy: the energy possessed by the body due
to its steady position is known as potential energy. If a
body having a mass of m kg is lifted vertically at a
height of h meter then the potential energy can be
 P.E. = m g h Joule where m=mass, g = gravitational
acceleration, h = height
Joule’s law of Electric Heating
 Joule’s Law: When a current of I amperes flows through
a resistance R for time t second then the heat is
produced. This heat energy must be equal to the
electrical energy which is to be spent. This is known as
joule’s law.
 Joule’s law states that the heat produced in the
conductor is
Joule’s law of Electric Heating
 1. directly proportional to square of current I 2
 2. directly proportional to resistance R of conductor
 3. directly proportional to time t for which current is
passed.
 E = I2 R t = V I t = V2 t / R Joules
 H = Electrical Heat Energy / Mechanical Equivalent of
Heat
 H = I2 R t / J = V I t / J = V 2 t / R J
 J = Mechanical Equivalent of heat = 4186 Joule / kcal
Thermal Units
 Specific Heat: the specific heat is defined as the heat
required to change the temperature through 1 K of any
substance having a mass of 1 kg. it is denoted by s
 Sensible Heat: the sensible heat is defined as the heat
which is required when the temperature changes from θ1
to θ2. its unit is joule. It can be written as
 Sensible Heat = m s (θ2 - θ1)
Thermal Units
 Latent Heat: the latent heat is defined as the heat
required to change the state of the substance from solid
to liquid to gas without change in its temperature. Its
unit is kcal. It can be written as
 Latent Heat = m L kcal where L= specific heat in
kcal/kg
 Total Heat = Sensible Heat + Latent Heat
Thermal Units
 Calorific Value: the calorific value is defined as the
amount of heat produced by burning of fuel of 1 kg
mass. Its unit is kJ/kg. it can be written as
 Calorific value of fuel = Heat Energy / Mass of fuel
kJ/kg
Thermal Efficiency
 Thermal Efficiency: ratio of actual heat utilized to the
total heat produced electrically.
 Example: electric kettle
 As we know that the electric kettle is used to heat the
water. The total heat produced in an electric kettle is
divided into three parts
1. Part of heat is used in heating electric kettle.
2. Part of heat is lost by radiation and convection.
3. Rest of heat is utilized in heating the water.
Thermal Efficiency
 Itmeans the thermal efficiency of the electric kettle is
defined as the ratio of energy required for boiling the
water to the total energy produced.
 η = Energy required for boiling the water / total energy
required
 η = m s (θ2 - θ1) / V I t /J = m s J (θ2 - θ1) / V I t
m = mas of water (in kg), s = specific heat
 θ2 - θ1 = rise in temperature
Examples
 Refer the text book for examples