The endocrine system

By
Phd s Siham albrifkani
 The endocrine system
• The endocrine system is not as closely linked as
other systems, for example the circulatory
system.
• Endocrine glands are groups of secretory cells
that are surrounded by a large network of
capillaries, this rich blood supply permits
diffusion of hormones .
• Exocrine glands for example the salivary glands,
the mammary glands, sweat glands and those
glands located within the gastrointestinal tract .
 Hormones
• Hormones are powerful. It takes only a tiny
amount to cause big changes in cells or even
your whole body.
• That is why too much or too little of a certain
hormone can be serious. They work slowly,
over time, and affect many different
processes, including :
• Growth and development Metabolism - how
your body gets energy from the foods you eat
, Sexual function , Reproduction and Mood
 Hormone
• Chemical Structures
Hormones are also grouped according to
chemical structure.
• Structures dictate if the hormone prefers to
be surrounded by water or fat (water or fat
soluble),
• Three general structures are known;
1-Steroid hormones are fat-soluble molecules
made from cholesterol.
Among these are the three major sex hormones
groups: estrogens, androgens and
progesterones.
Males and females make all three, just in
different amounts.
Steroids pass into a cell's nucleus, bind to
specific receptors and genes and trigger the
cell to make proteins.
2-Amino acid derivatives, such as epinephrine,
are water-soluble molecules derived from
amino acids .
• These hormones are stored in endocrine cells
until needed.
• They act by binding to protein receptors on
the outside surface of the cell.
• The binding alerts a second messenger
molecule inside the cell that activates
enzymes influences gene expression.
3-Insulin, growth hormone, prolactin and other
water-soluble polypeptide hormones consist
of long chains of amino acids, from several to
200 amino acids long.
• They are stored in endocrine cells until needed
to regulate metabolism, growth and
reproduction. Endocrine glands includes:
1-The pituitary gland and the hypothalamus
1-The pituitary gland and the
hypothalamus
 2- The pineal gland

• The pineal gland secretes the hormone

melatonin when sleeping, this influences
circadian rhythm (this is roughly a 24 hour
cycle in the physiological processes of
humans.
 3-The posterior pituitary lobe
• The posterior pituitary releases two hormones, these hormones arrive
directly from the hypothalamus:
1-oxytocin 2-antidiuretic hormone (ADH).
• Oxytocin causes contraction of the smooth muscle in the wall of the
uterus .It also stimulates the discharge of milk from the lactating breast;
this is called the ‘let down’.
• ADH (vasopressin) is to reduce urinary output. The result is that less
water is lost.
4-The thyroid gland
This gland releases two types of thyroid hormone, thyroxine (T4) and
triiodothyronine (T3.)
5-Parathyroid glandsThey are responsible for secretion of parathyroid
hormone, is the most important regulator of blood calcium level.

Hypoparathyroidism leads to increased nerve excitability.

 6-The adrenal glands
• The adrenal glands are located one each near
the upper portion of each kidney. Each gland
has an outer cortex and an inner medulla.
• The key glucocorticoid is cortisol, increasing
levels of blood glucose.
• Male hormones – androgens, and female
hormones – oestrogens, are secreted in
minimal amounts in both sexes by the adrenal
cortex, from the testes and ovaries.
 7-The endocrine pancreas
The pancreatic islets (the islets of Langerhans).
• The islets are the endocrine cells of the
pancreas, which secrete insulin and glucagon,
the hormones are diffused directly into the
blood.
• The islets have three key cell types producing a
different hormone:
– Alpha cells secreting glucagon.
– Beta cells secreting insulin
– Delta cells secrete somatostatin.
 Insulin
This hormone responsibilities for ability to reduce
& maintenance of normal blood glucose.
Somatostatin This inhibits the release of insulin
and glycogen this hormone functions is unknown.

8-The gonads
• The gonads are the primary reproductive
organs: the testes in the male and the ovaries
in the female. The ovaries produce two
groups of female sex hormones which
are the oestrogens and progesterone.
 The testes

• Male sex hormones are called androgens.

• The main androgen is testosterone, secreted by the
testes; the adrenal cortex also produces a small amount.
9- Other endocrine glands

• This hormone is responsible for the growth and

development of the male reproductive structures
• thymus
• , stomach,
• small intestines,
• heart and placenta