LESSON 6:

THE FOUR
CATEGORICALS
 The categorical proposition is the basic unit of an argument. In its simplest form, it
consists of subject term, copula, and predicate term. It is a verbal expression of something which
is perceived as true.

In the previous chapter, we saw how the combination of the quantity of the subject and
the quality of the copula resulted in the formulation of 8 propositions. In this chapter, we see the
reduction of these propositions into four fundamental types.
Reduction of Singular and Indefinite Propositions

Basically, the subject term is either universal or particular. A universal subject includes
the singular subject of the singular proposition. It also includes the indefinite subject of an
indefinite proposition.

The subject term of an indefinite proposition is taken as a universal, when the predicate
of such proposition signifies the genus, the specific difference, or an essential attribute
applicable to all the inferiors of the subject. Otherwise, such subject is treated as a particular and
the proposition itself is considered a particular.

To illustrate: The predicate “human” in the indefinite proposition ‘Filipinos are

human”, is an essential attribute applicable to “each and every Filipino”; thus, the subject term
“Filipinos” is considered a universal term. Accordingly, the whole proposition is classified as a
universal proposition.
 On the other hand, the predicate “industrious” in the indefinite proposition “Filipino are
industrious”, does not apply to “each and every Filipino” thus, the subject “Filipinos” is taken as
a particular term and the proposition itself is classified as a particular.

Therefore, a universal proposition is one which has either:

a) A universal subject term
b) An singular subject term or
c) An indefinite subject term which is potentially a universal proposition

A particular proposition is one which has either:

d) A particular subject term
e) An indefinite subject term which is potentially a particular term
 On the basis of the quantity of the subject, a proposition can only be either a universal
or a particular proposition. Each of them has two opposing formulations on the basis of the
copula which can either be affirmative or negative. Thus, we have only four categoricals,
namely:

1. Universal Affirmative
2. Universal Negative
3. Particular Affirmative
4. Particular Negative

The Symbols of the Categoricals

The four categoricals are identified by their respective symbols. These are the symbols:
A, E, I, O
 The letters “A” and “I” are derived from the vowels of the latin word “afirmo” which
means “I affirm”. Both letters stand for affirmative propositions. “A” stands for universal
affirmative. “I” stands for particular affirmative propositions.

The letter “E” and “O” are derived from the vowels of the latin word “nego” which
means “I deny”. Both letters stand for negative propositions. “E” stands for universal negative.
“O” stands for particular negative propositions.
1. The “A” Proposition
The “A” proposition is an affirmative proposition with a universal or potentially
universal subject. Its logical form is: “All S is P
Examples:
a) All children are duty bound to respect their parents.
b) Every right is limited.
c) (All) voters are citizens without legal impediment.
 2. The “E” Proposition
The “’E” proposition is a negative proposition with a universal or potentially universal
subject. Its logical form is: “No S is P”.
Examples:
a) No man is perfect
b) No dog is rational
c) No cheating is allowed

The above logical form is the only correct pattern for “E” proposition. The article
“No”, while it is placed before the subject, qualifies the copula. Placing it before the subject
indicates that the subject is universal: “No man”, “none” or “nobody”.
 3. The “I” Proposition
The “I” proposition is an affirmative proposition with a particular or indefinite subject.
Its logical form is: Some S is P”.
Examples:
a) Some graduates are teenagers
b) Few students are in the Deans List
c) A man is brave
 4. The “O” Proposition
The “O” proposition is a negative proposition with a particular or indefinite subject. its
logical form is: “Some S is not P”.
Examples:
a) Some doctors are not rich
b) The boys are not happy
c) Cars are not essentials to life

In its popular usage, the quantifier “some” is taken to mean “only some”. Thus, a
declaration such as “Some men are rational” is interpreted as a falsity, or an error in speech. In
logic, “some” means “at least some” so that any affirmation or negation with respect with
respect to this “some” or portion does not necessarily reflect on the totality.
 Note also that the quantifiers “all” and “every” when preceded by the particle “Not” do
not signify universality, but particularity. Thus, the following are “O” propositions:
a) Not every students is dull
b) Not all prisoners are guilty
c) Not all women are mothers

As a rule, when the copula is negative, “every”, “each”, and “all” denotes particularity
as in the following:
d) Every cat is not black
e) All good works are not rewarded
f) Each student is not a scholar
The Quantity of the Predicate Term

The quantity or extension of the predicate term important is understanding the

relationship between subject and predicate. Bachhuber gives us the following rules governing
the quantity of the predicate:
1. The predicate is singular when it stands for one definite individual or group, as in these
examples:
a) Sampaguita is our national flower.
b) Mrs. Mona Macalipay is the chief librarian.
c) Mario is the eldest son of Don Jose.

2. The predicate of an affirmative proposition is particular, unless it is singular, as in these

examples:
d) Florante is a Filipino
e) All cows are herbivorous
f) Some books are expensive
 In affirmative proposition, the subject stands for an indeterminate portion of the
extension of the predicate. This means that the subject is just one of the inferiors denoted by the
predicate. Thus, the subject “Florante” in “Florante is a Filipino” is simply “one of the
Filipinos”. It would never be correct to think of the predicate “Filipino” as a universal, since this
would mean that “every Filipino is Florante”.

3. The predicate of a negative proposition is universal, unless it is singular, as in these examples:

a) No man is an angel
b) Some stones are not edible
c) Her boyfriend is not an engineer

In a negative proposition, the subject is totally excluded from the extension of the
predicate. To make this exclusion complete and total, the predicate should always be taken as a
universal. This means that none of the inferiors signified by the predicate is the subject. Thus,
“No man is an angel” precisely means that the concept “angel” totally exclude the concept
“man”
The Logical Diagram of Propositions

Leonhard Eular, a Swiss mathematician, introduced the use of logical diagram to

illustrate the relationship of the subject and the predicate on the basis of their respective
extension. In this presentation, a full circle suggests a particular extension, and a circle with
broken lines indicates a singular extension.
1. Diagram of the “A” Proposition
Example: ALL MEN ARE TAIONAL

The subject term “man”, being a universal term, is drawn as a full circle inside the
circle indicating the predicate “rational”. The drawing shows how “each and every” man is
“rational”. That the circle representing the predicate is not completely filled up by the subject
term circle indicates that “rational” is taken as a particular. Theoretically, it means that there are
other beings which are rational but are not men.
Rational
2. Diagram of the “E” Proposition
Example: NO MAN IS AN ANGEL

The circle are drawn fully and separately to indicate that the subject and the predicate
have nothing in common with each other. That the subject term, all the individuals it signifies,
can never be within the extension of the predicate term.

Man Angel
3. Diagram of the “I” Proposition
Examples: SOME MEN ARE RATIONAL

The shaded portion shows which “some” of the subject term is identified with the
“some” of the predicate. It shows “the men who are rational”. Take note how this drawing may
mislead us into thinking that there are men who are not rational. This is precisely why
Bachhuber cautions us about the limitation of a quantitative presentation. Nonetheless, this
limitation may be overcome by keeping in mind that, in logic, to speak of “some is” does not
necessarily imply that “some is not”.
Some men who are
rational

Man Rational
4. Diagram of the “O” Proposition
Example: SOME MEN ARE NOT ANGELS

The shaded portion shows which “some’ of the subject is excluded from the extension
of the predicate. Again, take note of the meaning of “some” in logic.

Angels

Man Angels
Some men who
are not angels
5. Diagram of “A” Proposition with Singular Subject
Example: JOSE RIZAL IS OUR NATIONAL HERO

The subject term “Jose Rizal” is illustrated in broken lines, coinciding perfectly with
the circle indicating the predicate. This means that the subject and the predicate are convertible
with each other.
National Hero

Jose Rizal