CHAPTER 2: CONSERVATION LAWS

Introduction
Three conservation laws describe steady, free-surface flows:
1. conservation of mass
2. conservation of momentum
3. conservation of energy.
We derive equations describing these laws and demonstrate their application for analysis of flows.

For simplicity, only one-dimensional flows are considered, and flow velocity is only in the direction of flow
and the components of flow velocity in the transverse and vertical directions are zero.

1
Conservation of Mass

Assumption: incompressible fluid, i.e., the mass density of the liquid is constant.
No inflow or outflow across the channel boundaries. Flow is steady.

The law of conservation of mass between different channel cross sections implies that the volumetric flow rates at these
sections are equal.
Rate of mass inflow through area dA2 at section 1 = ρ1v1dA1

Rate of mass outflow through area dA2 at section 2 = ρ2v2dA2

2
 Law of conservation of mass says that the rate of mass inflow at section 1 must equal the rate of mass outflow at
section 2

Since the liquid is assumed incompressible, ρ1 = ρ2

Flow velocity assumed uniform

at each section:

V1 and V2: mean velocity at sections 1 and 2, respectively

Q : volumetric flow rate

In hydraulic engineering, this equation is usually referred to as the continuity equation
 Conservation of Momentum
Assume steady flow of an incompressible liquid in a prismatic channel with no lateral inflow or outflow.

γ = specific weight of liquid. If V1 is the mean flow velocity at section 1, then

β1 = momentum coefficient introduced to account for the non-uniform velocity distribution

at section 2:

4
 The following forces are acting on the volume of liquid between sections 1 and
2.

Component of the weight of liquid between Sections 1 and 2 = W sin θ

W = weight of the volume of liquid between Sections 1 and 2
θ= slope of the channel bottom.
Shear stress at the free surface of liquid with air is negligible.

External force due to shearing force between the liquid and the channel sides by Fe.

Then the resultant force Fr acting on the volume of liquid in the downstream direction is:
Newton’s second law of motion: Time rate of change of momentum of an object is equal to forces acting on
the object.

Now, the time rate of change of momentum of the liquid volume is equal to the resultant of the external
forces acting on the liquid volume

Note: Fe is the external shearing force acting on the volume of liquid.

Let’s simplify the equation above.

Assume a prismatic channel with horizontal bottom (θ = 0):

The, the component of the weight of liquid in the downstream direction is zero => Wsin θ = 0

For a channel with smooth bottom the shearing force is zero => Fe = 0

If the flow velocity is uniform at Sections 1 and 2, then β1 = β2 = 1

Then, the momentum conservation law leads to:

From the continuity equation, Q1 = Q2 = Q.

Fs : The specific force or momentum function

Equation of Motion
Let’s consider a rectangular fluid element along a streamline in a non-viscous fluid.
Δs = Length of the fluid element along the streamline
Δn = Length of the fluid element normal to the streamline be,

Thickness of the fluid element perpendicular to the screen is unity.

Assume fluid is non-viscous, then: No frictional forces acting on the fluid element.

p = pressure intensity at Section 1

p + (∂p/∂s)Δs = pressure intensity at Section 2
 Pressure force acting on the upstream face = pΔn

Pressure force acting on the downstream face = (p + ∂p/∂s.Δs)Δn

Weight of the fluid element = ρgΔsΔn

ρ = mass density of the fluid,

Component of this weight in the s-direction = ρgΔsΔn sinθ

sinθ = −(∂z/∂s), and z = height above the datum, measured positive in the upward direction

According to the Newton’s second law of motion, the resultant force is equal to the mass of the fluid element times
the acceleration of the fluid element
Simplified form

Since the flow velocity, V = V (s, t), acceleration, aS, in the s-direction may be written as

convective acceleration
local acceleration

Euler’s equation of motion

Note: Non-viscous fluid was the only assumption.

 Let’s see how this equation may be simplified for a number of special cases.

The local acceleration in steady flow is zero, (∂Vs/∂t) = 0.

Then:

Both p and Vs for steady flow are now functions of s only.

Then, by multiplying throughout by ds and integrating the resulting equation:

Dividing by γ
Bernoulli equation

This equation is valid along a streamline.

Bernoulli equation is valid for steady, irrotational, incompressible, and non-viscous flow.
Each term of Bernoulli equation has the dimensions of length.
H = total head, comprises three parts: datum head, z; pressure head, p/γ; and velocity head, Vs2 /(2g).
The datum head represents the potential energy, whereas the velocity head represents the kinetic energy.
Steady, Uniform Flow

Both the local and convective accelerations in steady-uniform flow are zero.

By integrating this equation

The term (p/γ + z) is referred to as the piezometric head

Specific Energy

Consider Bernoulli equation. Assuming that the velocity distribution is uniform (i.e., α = 1) and the pressure distribution
is hydrostatic, (i.e., p = γy).

Now, let us use the channel bottom as the datum. Then z = 0

E: the specific energy which is the total head above the channel bottom.
Let’s first consider a rectangular cross section having uniform velocity distribution, i.e., α = 1.

Let the channel width be B and the channel discharge be Q. Then, the discharge per unit width, q
(unit discharge), is q = Q/B, and V = q/y.

=constant for a specified unit discharge, q

Describes the relationship between E and y for a specified q.

The E-y curve represented by equation above can be plotted
Mathematically, we can prove that the E-y curve has two asymptotes: (E − y) = 0
and y = 0.
First asymptote represents a straight line passing through origin and inclined at
45˚ to the horizontal axis; and second asymptote is horizontal axis.

From physical considerations, we may explain that specific energy, E, comprises

two parts: 1) flow depth y, and 2) velocity head, V2/(2g).
• Velocity V decreases to pass the same amount of q as y increases, thereby decreasing the velocity head. Hence, the upper
branch of the curve approaches the straight line, E = y, as the velocity head becomes very small for very large values of y.
• Velocity V increases to pass the specified q as y decreases, thereby increasing the velocity head. Hence, as y tends to zero,
the velocity head tends to infinity, and the lower branch of the curve approaches the horizontal axis.
• The specific energy equation is a cubic equation in y for a given E and may have three distinct roots.
• One of these roots is always negative but it’s not physically possible to have a negative depth. Therefore, there can be only
two different values of y for a given value of E. These two depths, say y1 and y2 are called the alternate depths.
• As a special case, it is possible that y1 = y2 . Such a depth is called the critical depth, yc, and the corresponding flow is
called the critical flow.
A flow having depth greater than the critical depth is called subcritical flow and a flow having depth less than the critical
depth is called supercritical flow.
Consider specific energy equation

For given y if q increases then E increases.

In terms of discharge, Q, the Bernoulli equation for a general channel section may be written as

Now, let us consider channels having steep bottom slopes then: p = γd cos θ, in which d = depth of flow normal to the
channel bottom, and θ = angle between the channel bottom and the horizontal axis.

Assume the channel bottom as the datum. Then, the specific energy can be written as
Figure below shows the E-y curves for a channel having a steep bottom slope for three rates of discharges, Q1 < Q < Q2.

In this case, note that the angle between the horizontal axis and the straight line to which the upper limbs of the E-y curves
are asymptotes is not 45˚; this angle depends upon the slope of the channel bottom
Application of Momentum and Energy Equations

The momentum and energy equations should yield the same results if properly applied to any flow problem.

Question: Which of these equations should be preferred for a particular situation?

Answer: It depends upon the problem under consideration.

Since energy is a scalar quantity, as compared to the momentum equation, in which different terms are vector quantities it’s
easier computationally to work with.

The head losses to be included in the energy equation are the internal losses that occur in the volume of liquid.

The losses to be considered in the momentum equation are those due to the external shear stress acting on the boundaries of
the control volume.

Local losses, such as those in a bend or in a hydraulic jump, occur in a short length of the channel. In such short lengths,
losses due to shear at the boundaries are very small and may be neglected. Thus, the momentum equation is preferable in
such situations, since the energy equation cannot be used directly because the amount of internal loss is not known

The energy and momentum equations may be used either alone or in sequence to solve a particular problem.
Channel Transition

A channel transition may be defined as a change in the channel cross section (width and/or channel bottom ).

E1 = H1 and E2 = H2 − Δz
Hence, E2 = E1 − Δz

A channel transition is usually designed so that the losses in the transition are small.
Energy losses in the transition may be neglected => energy equation is more appropriate for the analysis.
Consider a constant-width rectangular channel with a bottom step.

The goal is to determine whether the water surface rises or drops

downstream of the transition for a specified flow depth and flow velocity
upstream of the transition.

Channel width is constant, then the unit discharge, q, is the same on both
sides of the transition and the same specific energy curve is applicable to
the upstream and downstream sides.

Energy losses in the transition are assumed to be negligible.

Thus:

H1=H2

Total head for the upstream = total head for the upstream down stream
For a step rise in the channel bottom:
Flow depth decreases downstream of the step if the flow upstream of the transition is subcritical the flow
depth increases if the upstream flow is supercritical.

These conclusions were drawn by considering all possible paths on a specific energy diagram.
Let us now derive them mathematically in a more rigorous manner.

If the pressure distribution is hydrostatic and α = 1, then the total head, H, at a channel section may be written as

Let’s take the derivative of this equation with respect to x (+ downstream flow direction along the channel bottom)
Froude number

If there is no energy loss, then dH/dx =0

This equation describes the variation of the flow depth for any variation in the bottom elevation
Example 2-1

A 4-m wide rectangular channel is carrying 10 m3/s at a depth of 2.5 m. There is a step rise of 0.2 m in the
channel bottom. Assuming there are no losses at the transition, determine the flow depth downstream of the
bottom step. Does the water surface rise or fall at the step?

Given:
Q = 10 m3/s
B=4m
y1 = 2.5 m
Δz = 0.2 m
No head losses at the transition.

Determine:
y2 = ?
Change in water-surface level = ?
Solution:
The flow velocity and the specific energy at section 1 are

Since there are no losses

 with A2 = 4y2

Solution of this equation by trial and error yields three roots: 2.29, 0.405, and −0.345 m.

The third root is physically impossible because of the negative depth. In addition, only the first root is possible, since
the upstream flow is subcritical, i.e., Fr < 1; the second root requires that the flow has to pass through the critical
depth at the step. Hence, y2 = 2.29 m is the only possible downstream depth. Let us use the channel bottom upstream
of the transition as the datum. Then water level downstream of the transition = 0.2 + 2.29 = 2.49 m.
Thus, the water-surface level drops by 2.5 - 2.49 = 0.01 m.
Hydraulic Jump
A hydraulic jump is formed in a channel whenever supercritical flow changes to subcritical flow.
At the jump location, there is a sharp discontinuity in the water surface and considerable amount of energy is
dissipated due to turbulence.

We are interested only in developing a relationship between the flow depths and the flow velocities upstream
and downstream of the jump.
The flow depths upstream and downstream of the jump are called sequent depths, or conjugate depths.

http://krcproject.groups.et.byu.net/

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/Hydraulic_jump_in_sink.jpg
Consider a rectangular, horizontal channel:
Since the amount of energy loss in a jump is not known we cannot apply the energy equation directly.
However, since the length of the jump is usually short, the losses due to shear at the channel bottom and
sides are small as compared to the pressure forces and may be neglected.

Specific force, Fs, at section 1 is equal to that at section 2:

For a rectangular channel, A = By and =0.5y.

Substituting Q = By1V1 and simplifying this equation:

This equation specifies a relationship between the depths upstream and downstream of the jump in terms of. Fr1.
Proceeding similarly, we can derive the following equation in terms of Fr2
Note: If the flow depth and flow velocity on one side of the jump are known, then their values on the other side can
be determined by using the hydraulic jump equation and the continuity equation. The energy losses can then be
computed from the energy equation.

Example 2-2

The reservoir level upstream of a 30-m wide spillway for a flow of 800 m 3/s is at El. 200 m. The downstream river level
for this flow is at El. 100 m. Determine the invert level of a stilling basin having the same width as the spillway so that a
hydraulic jump is formed in the basin. Assume the losses in the spillway are negligible.

Given:
Q = 800 m3/s
B =30 m
Upstream water level = El. 200 m
Downstream water level = El. 100 m

Determine:
Stilling basin invert elevation to form the jump ?
Solution
Let z be the invert elevation of the stilling basin then y2 = 100−z.
Since the losses on the spillway face are negligible and assuming y1 to be small,

Now, Q = BV1y1. Hence

Substituting expressions for y1 and V1

Substitution of expressions for y1, y2, and Fr12 into

Solving this equation by trial and error z = 84.18 m

the stilling basin invert should be at El. 84.18 m to form the jump.
Hydraulic Jump at Sluice Gate Outlet
A hydraulic jump is formed in this case just downstream of the gate.
A combined use of the specific-energy and specific force diagrams, as shown in this figure, illustrates the usefulness of
these concepts.

Assuming there are no losses at the gate, E1 = E2.

However, because of an additional external force
between sections 1 and 2, (i.e., thrust on the gate, Fg),
Fs1 is not equal to Fs2. There is loss of energy in the
hydraulic jump between sections 2 and 3. Hence, E2 is
not equal to E3. Since the losses due to shear at the
channel bottom and sides between sections 2 and 3 are
small and can be neglected, Fs3 = Fs2 provided the
channel bottom slope is either zero or can be assumed as
zero. The thrust on the gate, Fg = γ(Fs1 − Fs2); and the
energy losses in the jump = E2 − E3. The following
example illustrates the application of the specific energy
and specific force diagrams.
Example

A hydraulic jump is formed in a 5-m wide outlet at a short distance downstream of a control gate. If the flow depths just
downstream of the gate is 2 m and the outlet discharge is 150 m3/s, determine
i. Flow depth downstream of the jump;
ii. Thrust on the gate; and
iii. Head losses in the jump.
Assume there are no losses in the flow through the gate.

Given:
Q = 150 m3/s
B=5m
y2 = 2 m

Determine:
y3 = ?
Thrust on the gate = ?
Head losses in the jump = ?
Solution

The unit discharge in the outlet

q = 150/5 = 30 m3/s/m
Depth downstream of jump

Note that in this example, section 2 is upstream of the jump and section 3 is downstream of the jump. Hence, substituting
this value of Fr22 into
Head loss in the jump
Thrust on the gate

The depth upstream of the gate can be determined by applying the energy equation between sections 1 and 2.
If we use the channel bottom as the datum and neglect the losses at the gate which are negligible, then

By substituting the values for y2 and V2 and noting that V1 is almost zero, we obtain y1 = 13.468 m.