SEA College of Engineering and Technology

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS – I- 18ME52/17ME54/15ME54

Module I
Introduction & Design for Static Strength

Prepared by,
Mr. Manjunath K,Associate Professor,
Department of Mechanical Engineering
 Course Learning Objectives
 To understand the various steps involved in the Design Process.
 To explain the principles involved in design of machine elements, subjected to different kinds of forces, from the
considerations of strength, rigidity, functional and manufacturing requirements.
 To understand and interpret different failure modes and application of appropriate criteria for design of machine
elements.
 To learn to use national and international standards, standard practices, standard data, catalogs, and standard
components used in design of machine elements.
 Develop the capability to design elements like shafts, couplings, welded joints, screwed joints, and power
screws.
 Syllabus
Module-1
Introduction: Design Process: Definition of design, phases of design, and review of engineering materials and their properties
and manufacturing processes; use of codes and standards, selection of preferred sizes. Review of axial, bending, shear and
torsion loading on machine components, combined loading, two- and three dimensional stresses, principal stresses, stress tensors,
Mohr's circles.
Design for static strength: Factor of safety and service factor. Failure mode: definition and types, Failure of brittle and ductile
materials; even and uneven materials; Theories of failure: maximum normal stress theory, maximum shear stress theory,
distortion energy theory, strain energy theory, Columba –Mohr theory and modified Mohr’s theory. Stress concentration, stress
concentration factor and methods of reducing stress concentration.
Module-2
Impact Strength: Introduction, Impact stresses due to axial, bending and torsion loads.
Fatigue loading: Introduction to fatigue failure, Mechanism of fatigue failure, types of fatigue loading, S-N Diagram, Low cycle
fatigue, High cycle fatigue, Endurance limit. Modifying factors: size effect, surface effect, Stress concentration effects Notch
sensitivity, Soderberg and Goodman relationships, stresses due to combined loading, cumulative fatigue damage, and Miners
equation.
 Syllabus
Module-3
Design of shafts: Torsion of shafts, solid and hollow shaft design with steady loading based on strength and rigidity, ASME and BIS codes for
power transmission shafting, design of shafts subjected to combined bending, torsion and axial loading. Design of shafts subjected to fluctuating
loads
Design of keys and couplings: Keys: Types of keys and their applications, design considerations in parallel and tapered sunk keys, Design of
square and rectangular sunk keys. Couplings: Rigid and flexible coupling-types and applications, design of Flange coupling, and Bush and Pin type
coupling.
Module-4
Design of Permanent Joints: Types of permanent joints-Riveted and Welded Joints.
Riveted joints: Types of rivets, rivet materials, Caulking and fullering, analysis of riveted joints, joint efficiency, failures of riveted joints, boiler
joints, riveted brackets.
Welded joints: Types, strength of butt and fillet welds, eccentrically loaded welded joints.
Module-5
Design of Temporary Joints: Types of temporary joints- cotter joints, knuckle joint and fasteners. Design of Cotter and Knuckle Joint.
Threaded Fasteners: Stresses in threaded fasteners, effect of initial tension, design of threaded fasteners under static, dynamic and impact loads,
design of eccentrically loaded bolted joints.
Power screws: Mechanics of power screw, stresses in power screws, efficiency and self-locking, design of power screw.
Course Outcomes
At the end of the course, the student will be able to:
CO1: Apply the concepts of selection of materials for given mechanical components.
CO2: List the functions and uses of machine elements used in mechanical systems.
CO3: Apply codes and standards in the design of machine elements and select an element based on the
Manufacturer's catalogue.
CO4: Analyse the performance and failure modes of mechanical components subjected to combined loading and
fatigue loading using the concepts of theories of failure.
CO5: Demonstrate the application of engineering design tools to the design of machine components like shafts,
couplings, power screws, fasteners, welded and riveted joints.
CO6: Understand the art of working in a team.
Text Books
 Shigley's “Mechanical Engineering Design”, Richard G. Budynas, and J. Keith Nisbett, McGraw-Hill
Education 10th Edition, 2015.
 “Design of Machine Elements”, V B Bhandari, Tata McGraw Hill 4th Ed., 2016.
 “Design Of Machine Elements 1”, J B K Das and P L Srinivas Murthy, Sapna Book House, 2017.

Data Hand Book

 “Machine Design Databook”, K. Lingaiah, McGraw-Hill Handbooks 2 nd Edition, 2017.
 “Design Data Hand Book”, K. Mahadevan and Balaveera Reddy, CBS publication.
What is Design?
 Design is to formulate a plan satisfy a particular need and to create something
with physical reality.
 Realization of a concept or idea into a configuration.
 Design is the creation of a plan or convention for the construction of an object,
system or measurable human interaction.

What is Machine?
 Machine is defined as a combination of resisting bodies with successfully
constrained relative motions which is used transform other forms of energy into
mechanical energy or transmit and modify available energy to do some useful
work.
 An apparatus using mechanical power and having several parts, each with a
definite function and together performing a particular task.
 Semi or fully automated device that magnifies human physical and/or mental
capabilities in performing one or more operations.
What is Machine Design?

 Machine is a combination of several machine elements arranged to work together as a whole

to accomplish specific purpose.
 Machine Design involves designing the elements and arranging them optimally to obtain
some useful work.
 Machine design is the process of engineering design.
 A machine is made up of mechanisms that work together to satisfy the requirements of what
the machine needs to accomplish.
Classification of Machine Design

Types of design

Adaptive New
Design Development Design
Design
Classification of Machine Design

Adaptive Design
 The designer’s work is concerned with adaptation of existing design.
 This type of design needs no special knowledge or skill and can be attempted by designers of
ordinary technical training
 The designer only makes minor alternation or modification in the existing designs of the
product.
Classification of Machine Design

Development Design
 This type of design needs considerable scientific training and design ability in order to modify
the existing design into a new idea by adopting a new material or different method of
manufacture.
 The designer starts from the existing design, but final product may differ quite markedly from
the original product.
 In this case, though the designer starts from the existing design, but the final product may
differ quite markedly from the original product.
Classification of Machine Design

New Design
 This type of design needs lot of research, technical ability and creative thinking.
 Only those designers who have personal qualities of a sufficiently high order can take up the
work of a new design.
 The designs, depending upon the methods used, may be classified as follows:
 Rational design: This type of design depends upon mathematical formulae of principle of
mechanics.
Classification of Machine Design

New Design
 Empirical design: This type of design depends upon empirical formulae based on the practice
and past experience.
 Industrial design: This type of design depends upon the production aspects to manufacture
any machine component in the industry.
 Optimum design: It is the best design for the given objective function under the specified
constraints.
 It may be achieved by minimizing the undesirable effects.
Classification of Machine Design

New Design
 System design: It is the design of any complex mechanical system like a motor car.
 Element design: It is the design of any element of the mechanical system like piston,
crankshaft, connecting rod, etc.
 Computer aided design: This type of design depends upon the use of computer systems to
assist in the creation, modification, analysis and optimization of a design.
Types of Design

 Rational Design:- Based on determining the stresses and strains of components and thereby
deciding their dimensions.
 This type of design depends upon mathematical formulae of principal of mechanics.
 Empirical Design:- This type of design depends upon empirical formulae based on the
practice and past experience.
Factors in Machine Design
 What device or mechanism to be used?
 Material
 Forces on the elements
 Size
 Shape and space requirements
 Weight of the product
 The method of manufacturing the components and their assembly.
Factors in Machine Design

 How will it operate.

 Reliability and safety aspects.

 Inspectability

 Maintenance

 Cost and aesthetics of the designed product.

 General Procedure in Machine Design

Need or Aim Synthesis (Mechanisms) Analysis of forces

Design of Elements Material Selection

Modification Detailed Drawing

Production
Engineering Materials

 The knowledge of materials and their properties is of great significance for a design engineer.
 The machine elements should be made of such a material which has properties suitable for the
conditions of operation.
 In addition to this, a design engineer must be familiar with the effects which the
manufacturing processes and heat treatment have on the properties of the materials.
 Engineering Materials

Classification of Engineering Materials

 The engineering materials are mainly classified as:
1. Metals and their alloys, such as iron, steel, copper, aluminum, etc.
2. Non-metals, such as glass, rubber, plastic, etc.
 The metals may be further classified as:
(a) Ferrous metals
(b) Non-ferrous metals
 Engineering Materials

Ferrous metals
 The ferrous metals are those which have the iron as their main constituent, such as cast iron,
wrought iron and steel.
Non-ferrous metals
 The non-ferrous metals are those which have a metal other than iron as their main constituent,
such as copper, aluminum, brass, tin, zinc, etc.
 Engineering Materials

Selection of Materials for Engineering Purposes

 The selection of a proper material, for engineering purposes, is one of the most difficult
problems for the designer.
 The best material is one which serves the desired objective at the minimum cost.
 The following factors should be considered while selecting the material:
1. Availability of the materials,
2. Suitability of the materials for the working conditions in service, and
3. The cost of the materials.
 Engineering Materials

Physical Properties of Metals

 The physical properties of the metals include luster, colour, size and shape, density, electric
and thermal conductivity, and melting point.
Mechanical Properties of Metals
 The mechanical properties of the metals are those which are associated with the ability of the
material to resist mechanical forces and load.
 These mechanical properties of the metal include strength, stiffness, elasticity, plasticity,
ductility, brittleness, malleability, toughness, resilience, creep and hardness.
 Engineering Materials

Mechanical Properties of Metals

 Strength: It is the ability of a material to resist the externally applied forces without breaking
or yielding.
 The internal resistance offered by a part to an externally applied force is called stress.
 Stiffness: It is the ability of a material to resist deformation under stress.
 The modulus Design of elasticity is the measure of stiffness.
 Engineering Materials

 Elasticity: It is the property of a material to regain its original shape after deformation when
the external forces are removed.
 This property is desirable for materials used in tools and machines.
 It may be noted that steel is more elastic than rubber.
 Plasticity: It is property of a material which retains the deformation produced under load
permanently.
 This property of the material is necessary for forgings, in stamping images on coins and in
ornamental work.
 Engineering Materials
 Ductility: It is the property of a material enabling it to be drawn into wire with the application
of a tensile force. A ductile material must be both strong and plastic.
 The ductility is usually measured by the terms, percentage elongation and percentage
reduction in area.
 Brittleness: It is the property of a material opposite to ductility. It is the property of breaking
of a material with little permanent distortion.
 Brittle materials when subjected to tensile loads snap off without giving any sensible
elongation. Cast iron is a brittle material.
 Engineering Materials
 Malleability: It is a special case of ductility which permits materials to be rolled or hammered
into thin sheets. A malleable material should be plastic but it is not essential to be so strong.
 The malleable materials commonly used in engineering practice (in order of diminishing
malleability) are lead, soft steel, wrought iron, copper and aluminum.
 Toughness: It is the property of a material to resist fracture due to high impact loads like
hammer blows. The toughness of the material decreases when it is heated.
 It is measured by the amount of energy that a unit volume of the material has absorbed after
being stressed up to the point of fracture. This property is desirable in parts subjected to shock
and impact loads.
 Engineering Materials
 Machinability: It is the property of a material which refers to a relative case with which a
material can be cut.
 The machinability of a material can be measured in a number of ways such as comparing the
tool life for cutting different materials or thrust required to remove the material at some given
rate or the energy required to remove a unit volume of the material. It may be noted that brass
can be easily machined than steel.
 Engineering Materials
 Resilience: It is the property of a material to absorb energy and to resist shock and impact
loads. It is measured by the amount of energy absorbed per unit volume within elastic limit.
This property is essential for spring materials.
 Creep: When a part is subjected to a constant stress at high temperature for a long period of
time, it will undergo a slow and permanent deformation called creep. This property is
considered in designing internal combustion engines, boilers and turbines.
Manufacturing Processes
 Manufacturing of the product is an important link in the chain of events that begins with the
concept of a probable product and ends with a competitive product in the market place.
 Product design, selection of materials and processing the materials into finished components
are closely related to one another.
 Manufacturing can be considered as processing the available material into useful components
of the product, e.g., converting a mild steel sheet into car body, converting a billet of cast iron
into a machine tool bed or converting a steel bar into a transmission shaft.
 The manufacturing processes can be broadly classified into the following three categories:
(i) Casting Processes, (ii) Deformation Processes and (iii) Material Removal Processes.
 Manufacturing Processes
Design Considerations of Castings
 Complex parts, which are otherwise difficult to machine, are made by the casting process
using sand mould.
 Almost any metal can be melted and cast.
 Most of the sand cast parts are made of cast iron, aluminum alloys and brass.
 The size of the sand casting can be as small as 10 g and as large as 200 x 103 kg.
 Sand castings have irregular and grainy surfaces and machining is required if the part is
moving with respect to some other part or structure.
 Cast components are stable, rigid and strong compared with machined or forged parts.
 Manufacturing Processes
Design Considerations of Castings:
Always Keep the Stressed Areas of the Part in Compression
 Cast iron has more compressive strength than its tensile strength. The balanced sections with
equal areas in tension and compression are not suitable for cast iron components.
 The castings should be placed in such a way that they are subjected to compressive rather than
tensile stresses as illustrated in figure (a). When tensile stresses are unavoidable, a clamping
device such as a tie rod or a bearing cap as illustrated in figure (b) should be considered.
 Manufacturing Processes
Design Considerations of Castings:
Round All External Corners
 It has two advantages—it increases the endurance limit of the component and reduces the
formation of brittle chilled edges.
 When the metal in the corner cools faster than the metal adjacent to the corner, brittle chilled
edges are formed due to iron carbide.
 Manufacturing Processes
Design Considerations of Castings:
Section Thickness should be Held as Uniform as Compatible with Overall Design
 Abrupt changes in the cross-section result in high stress concentration.
 If the thickness is to be varied at all, the change should be gradual as illustrated in figure.
 Manufacturing Processes
Design Considerations of Castings:
Avoid Concentration of Metal at the Junctions
 At the junction as shown in figure, there is a concentration of metal.
 Even after the metal on the surface solidifies, the central portion still remains in the molten
stage, with the result that a shrinkage cavity or blowhole may appear at the centre.
 The concentration of metal is avoided by providing a cored opening in webs and ribs, as
illustrated in figure.
 Manufacturing Processes
Design Considerations of Forgings
 Forged components are widely used in automotive and aircraft industries. They are usually
made of steels and non-ferrous metals.
 Forged components are used under the following circumstances:
(i) Moving components requiring light weight to reduce inertia forces, e.g., connecting rod.
(ii) Components subjected to excessive stresses, e.g., aircraft structures.
(iii) Small components that must be supported by other structures or parts, e.g., hand tools
(iv) Components requiring pressure tightness where the part must be free from internal cracks,
e.g., valve bodies.
 Manufacturing Processes
Design Considerations of Forgings
 In order to obtain maximum benefit from forged components, the following principles should
be adopted:
(i) While designing a forging, advantage should be taken of the direction of fibre lines. The grain
structure of a crankshaft manufactured by the three principal methods, viz., casting, machining
and forging, is shown in figure.
 Manufacturing Processes
Design Considerations of Forgings
(ii) The forged component should be provided with an adequate draft as illustrated in figure. The
draft angle is provided for an easy removal of the part from the die impressions. The angles α and
β are drafts for outside and inside surfaces.
 Manufacturing Processes
Design Considerations of Machined Parts
 Machined components are widely used in all industrial products. They are usually made from
ferrous and non-ferrous metals.
 They are as small as a miniature gear in a wristwatch and as large as a huge turbine housing.
 Machined components are used under the following circumstances:
(i) Components requiring precision and high dimensional accuracy
(ii) Components requiring flatness, roundness, parallelism or circularity
(iii) Components of interchangeable assembly
(iv) Components, which are in relative motion with each other or with some fixed part
 Manufacturing Processes
Design Considerations of Machined Parts
(i) Avoid Machining: Machining operations increase cost of the component. Components made
by casting or forming methods are usually cheaper. Therefore, as far as possible, the designer
should avoid machined surfaces.
(ii) Specify Liberal Tolerances: The secondary machining operations like grinding or reaming
are costly. Therefore, depending upon the functional requirement of the component, the designer
should specify the most liberal dimensional and geometric tolerances. Closer the tolerance,
higher is the cost.
 Manufacturing Processes
Design Considerations of Machined Parts
(iii) Avoid Sharp Corners: Sharp corners result in stress concentration. Therefore, the designer
should avoid shapes that require sharp corners.
(iv) Use Stock Dimensions: Raw material like bars are available in standard sizes. Using stock
dimensions eliminates machining operations. For example, a hexagonal bar can be used for a
bolt, and only the threaded portion can be machined.
(v) Design Rigid Parts: Any machining operation such as turning or shaping induces cutting
forces on the components. The component should be rigid enough to withstand these forces. In
this respect, components with thin walls or webs should be avoided.
Standardization

 Standardization is defined as obligatory (or compulsory) norms, to which various

characteristics of a product should comply (or agree) with standard.
 The characteristics include materials, dimensions and shape of the component, method of
testing and method of marking, packing and storing of the product.
 A standard is defined as a set of specifications for parts, materials or processes.
 The objective of a standard is to reduce the variety and limit the number of items to a
reasonable level.
 Standardization
 On the other hand, a code is defined as a set of specifications for the analysis, design,
manufacture, testing and erection of the product.
 The purpose of a code is to achieve a specified level of safety.
 There are three types of standards used in design :-
• Company Standards
• National standards
• International standards
 Standardization
 Company Standards: They are used in a particular company or a group of sister concerns.
 National standards:
• India - BIS (Bureau of Indian Standards).
• Germany - DIN (Deutsches Institut für Normung).
• USA - AISI (American Iron and Steel Institute) or SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers).
• UK - BS (British Standards.
 International standards: These are prepared by the International Standards Organization
(ISO).
Benefits of Standardization
 Reductions in types and dimensions of identical components (inventory control).
 Reduction in manufacturing facilities.
 Easy to replace (Interchangeability).
 No need to design or test the elements.
 Improves quality and reliability.
 Improves reputation of the company which manufactures standard components.
 Sometimes it ensures the safety.
 It results in overall cost reduction.
 Benefits of Standardization
B.I.S Designations Of The Plain Carbon Steel
 Plain carbon steel is designated according to BIS as follows:
1. The first one or two digits indicate the 100 times of the average percentage content of carbon.
2. Followed by letter “C”
3. Followed by digits indicates 10 times the average percentage content of Manganese “Mn”.
 Benefits of Standardization
B.I.S Designations Of Alloy Steel
 Alloy carbon steel is designated according to BIS as follows:
1. The first one or two digits indicate the 100 times of the average percentage content of carbon.
2. Followed by the chemical symbol of chief alloying element.
3. Followed by the rounded off the average percentage content of alloying element as per
international standards.
4. Followed by the chemical symbol of alloying elements followed by their average percentage
content rounded off as per international standards in the descending order.
Selection of Preferred Sizes
 When a machine is to be made in several sizes with different powers or capacities, it is
necessary to decide what capacities will cover a certain range efficiently with minimum
number of sizes.
 It has been shown by experience that a certain range can be covered efficiently when it follows
a geometrical progression with a constant ratio.
 The preferred numbers are the conventionally rounded off values derived from geometric
series including the integral powers of 10 and having as common ratio of the following
factors: ,,and.
 Selection of Preferred Sizes
 These ratios are approximately equal to 1.58, 1.26, 1.12 and 1.06.
 The series of preferred numbers are designated as *R5, R10, R20 and R40 respectively. These
four series are called basic series.
 The other series called derived series may be obtained by simply multiplying or dividing the
basic sizes by 10, 100, etc. The preferred numbers in the series R5 are 1, 1.6, 2.5, 4.0 and 6.3.
 Selection of Preferred Sizes
 A derived series is obtained by taking every second, third, fourth or pth term of a given basic
series.
 Such a derived series is designated by the symbol of the basic series followed by the number
2, 3, 4 or p and separated by ‘/’ sign.
 If the series is limited, the designation also includes the limits inside the bracket.
 If the series is unlimited, at least one of the numbers of that series is mentioned inside the
bracket.
 Selection of Preferred Sizes
 Let us consider the meaning of these designations.
(i) Series R 10/3 (1, … ,1000) indicates a derived series comprising of every third term of the
R10 series and having the lower limit as 1 and higher limit as 1000.
(ii) Series R 20/4 (…, 8, …) indicates a derived series comprising of every fourth term of the R20
series, unlimited in both sides and having the number 8 inside the series.
(iii) Series R 20/3 (200, …) indicates a derived series comprising of every third term of the R20
series and having the lower limit as 200 and without any higher limit.
(iv) Series R 20/3 (…200) indicates a derived series comprising of every third term of the R20
series and having the higher limit as 200 and without any lower limit.
Axial Loading on Machine Components
 The prismatic bar shown in figure is loaded in tension along its axis by the opposing forces (P)
at each end. Again, a prismatic bar has a uniform cross section, and therefore a constant area
(A) along its length.

 Stress: These two forces produce a tensile load along the axis of the bar, resulting in a tensile
normal stress (σ ) given by
 Axial Loading on Machine Components
 Strain: It is a dimensionless quantity and does not have a unit if the change in length ε and the
length (L) are in the same units.
 Stress-Strain Diagrams: If the stress (σ ) is plotted against the strain (ε) for an axially loaded
bar, the stress-strain diagram for a ductile material in figure results, where A is proportional
limit, B elastic limit, C yield point, D ultimate strength, and F fracture point.
 Axial Loading on Machine Components
 The stress-strain diagram is linear up to the proportional limit, and has a slope (E) called the
modulus of elasticity. In this region the equation of the straight line up to the proportional limit
is called Hooke’s law, and is given by,

 Deformation: As a consequence of the axial loading shown in figure, there is a corresponding

lengthening of the bar (δ), given by,
Shear Loading on Machine Components
 The overlapping bars in figure are held together by a single rivet as shown.

 A shear force (V) acts over the cross section of the rivet and by static equilibrium equals the
magnitude of the force (P). As a consequence a shear stress (τ ) is developed in the rivet as
given by

 The unit of shear stress (τ ) is the same as that for normal stress (σ ), Newton per square meter.
Torsion Loading on Machine Components
 Figure shows a circular shaft acted upon by opposing torques (T ), causing the shaft to be in
torsion. This type of loading produces a shear stress in the shaft, thereby causing one end of
the shaft to twist about the axis relative to the other end.

 Stress: The two opposing torques (T ) produce a twisting load along the axis of the shaft,
resulting in a shear stress distribution (τ ) as given by,
Torsion Loading on Machine Components
 Strain: As a consequence of the torsional loading on the circular shaft, there is a twisting of
the shaft along its geometric axis. This produces a shear strain (γ ) which is given by

where (φ) is the angle of twist of the shaft, measured in radians.

 Deformation: The angle of twist (φ) is given by,
Bending Loading on Machine Components
 Figure shows a simply-supported beam with a concentrated force (F) located at its midpoint.
This force produces both a bending moment distribution and a shear force distribution in the
beam. At any location along the length (L) of the beam, the bending moment produces a
normal stress (σ ) and the shear force produces a shear stress (τ ).

 Note that beam deflections represent the deformation caused by bending.

Bending Loading on Machine Components
 Stress: Once the bending moment (M) has been determined at a particular point along a beam,
then the normal stress distribution (σ ) can be determined

where (y) is distance from the neutral axis (centroid) to the point of interest and (I ) is area
moment of inertia about an axis passing through the neutral axis.
Bending Loading on Machine Components
 The distribution given by is linear as shown in figure, with the maximum normal stress (σmax)

occurring at the top of the beam, the minimum normal stress (σmin) occurring at the bottom of
the beam, and zero at the neutral axis (y = 0).
 For the directions of the bending moments (M) shown in figure, which by standard convention
are considered negative, (σmax) is a positive tensile stress and (σmin) is a negative compressive
stress. Also, the term neutral axis gets its name from the fact that the bending stress is zero, or
neutral, when the distance (y) is zero.
Principal Stresses
 At any point in a strained material, there are three planes, mutually perpendicular to each other
which carry direct stresses only and no shear stress.
 It may be noted that out of these three direct stresses, one will be maximum and the other will
be minimum.
 These perpendicular planes which have no shear stress are known as principal planes and the
direct stresses along these planes are known as principal stresses.
 The planes on which the maximum shear known as planes of maximum shear.
Principal Stresses
Application of Principal Stresses in Designing Machine Members
 There are many cases in practice, in which machine members are subjected to combined
stresses due to simultaneous action of either tensile or compressive stresses combined with
shear stresses.
 In many shafts such as propeller shafts, C-frames etc., there are direct tensile or compressive
stresses due to the external force and shear stress due to torsion, which acts normal to direct
tensile or compressive stresses. The shafts like crank shafts, are subjected simultaneously to
torsion and bending. In such cases, the maximum principal stresses, due to the combination of
tensile or compressive stresses with shear stresses may be obtained.
Stress Tensors
 The stress (force per unit area) at a point in a fluid needs nine components to be completely
specified, since each component of the stress must be defined not only by the direction in
which it acts but also the orientation of the surface upon which it is acting.
 The first index i specifies the direction in which the stress component acts, and the second
index j identifies the orientation of the surface upon which it is acting. The ith component of
the force acting on a surface whose outward normal points in the jth direction is τij .
Mohr’s Circle
 This circle is usually referred to as Mohr’s circle, after the German civil engineer Otto Mohr
(1835-1918).
 He developed the graphical technique for drawing the circle in 1882.
 The construction of Mohr’s circle is one of the few graphical techniques still used in
engineering.
 It provides a simple and clear picture of an otherwise complicated analysis.
Mohr’s Circle
Sign Convention for Mohr’s Circle
 Notice that shear stress is plotted as positive downward. The reason for doing this is that 2θ is
then positive counterclockwise, which agrees with the direction of 2θ used in the derivation of
the transformation equations and the direction of θ on the stress element.
Mohr’s Circle
Procedure for Constructing Mohr’s Circle
1. Draw a set of coordinate axes with σx1 as abscissa (positive to the right) and τx1y1 as ordinate
(positive downward).
2. Locate the centre of the circle c at the point having coordinates σx1= σavg and τx1y1 = 0.

3. Locate point A, representing the stress conditions on the x face of the element by plotting its
coordinates σx1 = σx and τx1y1 = τxy. Note that point A on the circle corresponds to θ = 0°.

4. Locate point B, representing the stress conditions on the y face of the element by plotting its
coordinates σx1 = σy and τx1y1 = −τxy. Note that point B on the circle corresponds to θ = 90°.
Mohr’s Circle
Procedure for Constructing Mohr’s Circle
5. Draw a line from point A to point B, a diameter of the circle passing through point c. Points A
and B (representing stresses on planes at 90° to each other) are at opposite ends of the diameter
6. Using point c as the centre, draw Mohr’s circle through points A and B. Circle has radius R.
Design for Static Strength
 Machine parts fail when the stresses induced by external forces exceed their strength. The
external loads cause internal stresses in the elements and the component size depends on the
stresses developed.
 Loading may be due to: a) The energy transmitted by a machine element.
b) Dead weight.
c) Inertial forces.
d) Thermal loading.
e) Frictional forces.
Design for Static Strength
 Load may be classified as:
a) Static load- Load does not change in magnitude and direction and normally increases
gradually to a steady value.
b) Dynamic load- Load may change in magnitude for example, traffic of varying weight passing
a bridge. Load may change in direction, for example, load on piston rod of a double acting
cylinder. Vibration and shock are types of dynamic loading.
Factor of Safety
 Determination of stresses in structural or machine components would be meaningless unless
they are compared with the material strength.
 If the induced stress is less than or equal to the limiting material strength then the designed
component may be considered to be safe and an indication about the size of the component is
obtained.
 The strength of various materials for engineering applications is determined in the laboratory
with standard specimens. For example, for tension and compression tests a round rod of
specified dimension is used in a tensile test machine where load is applied until fracture
occurs. This test is usually carried out in a Universal testing machine
Factor of Safety
 The load at which the specimen finally ruptures is known as Ultimate load and the ratio of
load to original cross-sectional area is the Ultimate stress.
 Similar tests are carried out for bending, shear and torsion and the results for different
materials are available in handbooks. For design purpose an allowable stress is used in place
of the critical stress to take into account the uncertainties including the following:
1) Uncertainty in loading.
2) In-homogeneity of materials.
3) Various material behaviors. e.g. corrosion, plastic flow, creep.
4) Residual stresses due to different manufacturing process.
Factor of Safety
5) Fluctuating load (fatigue loading): Experimental results and plot- ultimate strength depends on
number of cycles.
6) Safety and reliability.
 For ductile materials, the yield strength and for brittle materials the ultimate strength are taken
as the critical stress.
 An allowable stress is set considerably lower than the ultimate strength.
Factor of Safety
 The ratio of ultimate to allowable load or stress is known as factor of safety,

 The ratio must always be greater than unity. It is easier to refer to the ratio of stresses since
this applies to material properties.
 In case of ductile materials e.g. mild steel, where the yield point is clearly defined, the factor
of safety is based upon the yield point stress.
 In case of brittle materials e.g. cast iron, the yield point is not well defined as for ductile
materials. Therefore, the factor of safety for brittle materials is based on ultimate stress.
Service Factor
 The service factor is defined as the minimum ratio between calculated capacity and average
transmitted load for any component of the system.
 Service factor is the ratio of the rated horsepower (or torque) to the application’s required
horsepower (or torque).
 The reference point is a service factor of 1, which would mean a motor cannot operate over
its rated horsepower without overheating.
 Similarly, for example, a service factor of 1.25 says the motor can operate 25% over its rated
horsepower without damage or overheating.
Service Factor
Conditions that may require an increase in the service factor are:
 Elevated temperatures
 Extreme shock loads or vibrations
 Non-uniform loads
 Cyclic loads (frequent starts and stops)
 High peak versus continuous loads
Failure Theories
 Ductile materials (yield criteria)
• Maximum shear stress (MSS)
• Distortion energy (DE)
• Ductile Coulomb-Mohr (DCM)
 Brittle materials (fracture criteria)
• Maximum normal stress (MNS)
• Brittle Coulomb-Mohr (BCM)
• Modified Mohr (MM)
 Maximum-Shear-Stress Theory
 According to this theory, yielding would occur when the maximum shear stress just exceeds
the shear stress at the tensile yield point.

 At the tensile yield point σ2= σ3 = 0 and thus maximum shear stress is σy/2.

 This gives us six conditions for a three-dimensional stress situation:

𝜎 1 − 𝜎 2 =± 𝜎 𝑦
𝜎 2 − 𝜎 3 =± 𝜎 𝑦
𝜎 3 −𝜎 1=± 𝜎 𝑦
Maximum-Shear-Stress Theory
 Maximum Principal Stress Theory

 According to this, if one of the principal stresses σ1 (maximum principal stress), σ2

(minimum principal stress) or σ3 exceeds the yield stress, yielding would occur.
 In a two dimensional loading situation for a ductile material where tensile and compressive
yield stress are nearly of same magnitude.
𝜎 1=± 𝜎 𝑦
𝜎 2=± 𝜎 𝑦

 Yielding occurs when the state of stress is at the boundary of the rectangle. Consider, for
example, the state of stress of a thin walled pressure vessel. Here σ 1= 2σ2, σ1 being the

circumferential or hoop stress and σ2 the axial stress.

 Maximum Principal Stress Theory

 As the pressure in the vessel increases the stress follows the dotted line. At a point (say) a,
the stresses are still within the elastic limit but at b, σ 1 reaches σy although σ2 is still less

than σy.
 Yielding will then begin at point b. This theory of yielding has very poor agreement with
experiment.
 Maximum Principal Strain Theory

 According to this theory, yielding will occur when the maximum principal strain just
exceeds the strain at the tensile yield point in either simple tension or compression.
 If ε1 and ε2 are maximum and minimum principal strains corresponding to σ 1 and σ2, in the
limiting case,
1
𝜀 1=
𝐸
( 𝜎 1 −𝜈 𝜎 2 )
1
𝜀 2= ( 𝜎 2 −𝜈 𝜎 1 )
𝐸
𝐸 𝜀 1=𝜎 1 −𝜈 𝜎 2=± 𝜎 0
𝐸 𝜀 2=𝜎 2 − 𝜈 𝜎 1=± 𝜎 0
Maximum Principal Strain Theory
Maximum Strain Energy Theory
 According to this theory failure would occur when the total strain energy absorbed at a point
per unit volume exceeds the strain energy absorbed per unit volume at the tensile yield
point.
 This may be given
1 1
2
( 𝜎 1 𝜀1 +𝜎 1 𝜀1 + 𝜎 1 𝜀1 )= 𝜎 𝑦 𝜀 𝑦
2

 Substituting, ε1, ε2, ε3 and εy in terms of stresses we have

2 2 2 2
𝜎 1 +𝜎 2+ 𝜎 3 −2 𝜐(𝜎 1 𝜎 2 + 𝜎 2 𝜎 3 + 𝜎 3 𝜎 1)=𝜎 𝑦
Maximum Strain Energy Theory
 This may be written as

( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
𝜎1 𝜎2 𝜎1 𝜎2
+ − 2𝑣 =1
𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑦 𝜎
2
𝑦
Distortion Energy Theory
 According to this theory yielding would occur when total distortion energy absorbed per
unit volume due to applied loads exceeds the distortion energy absorbed per unit volume at
the tensile yield point.

 Total strain energy ET and strain energy for volume change EV can be given as
1
𝐸 𝑇 = ( 𝜎 1 𝜀1+ 𝜎 1 𝜀1 +𝜎 3 𝜀3 )
2
3
𝐸 𝑣 = 𝜎 𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝜀𝑎𝑣𝑔
2
Distortion Energy Theory
 Coulomb – Mohr Theory

 The Mohr Theory of Failure, also known as the Coulomb-Mohr criterion or internal-friction
theory, is based on the famous Mohr's Circle.
 Mohr's theory is often used in predicting the failure of brittle materials, and is applied to
cases of 2D stress.
 Mohr's theory suggests that failure occurs when Mohr's Circle at a point in the body exceeds
the envelope created by the two Mohr's circles for uniaxial tensile strength and uniaxial
compression strength.
Coulomb –Mohr Theory
 The left circle is for uniaxial compression at the limiting compression stress of the material.
Likewise, the right circle is for uniaxial tension at the limiting tension stress.
 The middle Mohr's Circle on the figure (dash-dot-dash line) represents the maximum
allowable stress for an intermediate stress state.
Coulomb –Mohr Theory
 Graphically, Mohr's theory requires that the two principal stresses lie within the green zone
depicted below,

 Also shown on the figure is the maximum stress criterion (dashed line). This theory is less
conservative than Mohr's theory since it lies outside Mohr's boundary.
Stress Concentration
 A stress concentration (also called a stress raiser or a stress riser) is a location in an object
where the stress is significantly greater than the surrounding region.
 Stress concentrations occur when there are irregularities in the geometry or material of a
structural component that cause an interruption to the flow of stress. This arises from such
details as holes, grooves, notches and fillets.
Stress Concentration

 Geometric discontinuities cause an object to experience a localised increase in stress.

 Examples of shapes that cause stress concentrations are sharp internal corners, holes, and
sudden changes in the cross-sectional area of the object as well as unintentional damage
such as nicks, scratches and cracks.
 High local stresses can cause objects to fail more quickly, so engineers must design the
geometry to minimize stress concentrations.
 Material discontinuities, such as inclusions in metals, may also concentrate the stress.
Inclusions on the surface of a component may be broken from machining during
manufacture leading to microcracks that grow in service from cyclic loading.
Stress Concentration Factor

 The degree of concentration of a discontinuity under typically tensile loads can be expressed
as a non-dimensional stress concentration factor Kt which is the ratio of the highest stress to
the nominal far field stress.
 The stress concentration factor, is the ratio of the maximum stress to a nominal stress.

 Stress concentration factor is a function of the geometry of a crack or notch, and not of its
size.
Causes of Stress Concentration

 The various causes of stress concentration are as follows:

(i) Abrupt change of cross section
(ii) Poor surface finish
(iii) Localized loading
(iv) Variation in the material properties
Methods of Reducing Stress Concentration

 The presence of stresses concentration cannot be totally eliminated but it can be reduced, so
following are the remedial measures to control the effects of stress concentration.
1. Provide additional notches and holes in tension members. a) Use of multiple notches. b)
Drilling additional holes.
2. Fillet radius, undercutting and notch for member in bending.
3. Reduction of stress concentration in threaded member.
4. Provide taper cross-section to the sharp corner of member
Methods of Reducing Stress Concentration
Additional Notches and Holes in Tension Member
 A flat plate with a V-notch subjected to tensile force is shown in Fig. (a). It is observed that
a single notch results in a high degree of stress concentration. The severity of stress
concentration is reduced by three methods:
• Use of multiple notches as shown in fig (b)
• Drilling additional holes as shown in fig (c)
• Removal of undesired material as shown in fig (c)
Methods of Reducing Stress
Concentration
Fillet Radius, Undercutting and Notch for Member in Bending
 There are three methods to reduce stress concentration at the base of this shoulder.
• By providing fillet radius at shoulder as shown Fig (b).
• By undercutting the shoulder as illustrated in Fig. (c).
• By additional notch at the top of shoulder as shown in Fig. (d).
Methods of Reducing Stress Concentration

Drilling Additional Holes for Shaft

A transmission shaft with a keyway is shown in Fig. (a). The keyway is a discontinuity and
results in stress concentration at the corners of the keyway, therefore holes are drilled to
minimise the stress concentration at the corners of keyway as shown in fig (b).
Methods of Reducing Stress Concentration

Reduction of Stress Concentration in Threaded Members

 There are three methods to reduce stress concentration
• Undercutting as shown in Fig. (b)
• Reduction in Shank Diameter shown in Fig. (c)
Numerical
Problem 1. A cantilever beam of rectangular cross-section is used to support a pulley as shown
in figure. The tension in the wire rope is 5 kN. The beam is made of cast iron FG 200 and the
factor of safety is 2.5. The ratio of depth to width of the cross-section is 2. Determine the
dimensions of the cross-section of the beam.
Numerical
Solution. Given P = 5 kN; Sut = 200 N/mm2; (fs) = 2.5 d /w = 2
Step I Calculation of permissible bending stress

Step II Calculation of bending moments

(Mb)at B = 5000 x 500 = 2500 x 103 N-mm

(Mb)at A = 5000 x 500 + 5000 x 1500 = 10000 x 103 N-mm

Numerical
Step III Calculation of dimensions of cross-section
The cross-section at A is subjected to maximum bending stress. For this cross-section,

Therefore, w = 57.24 mm or 60 mm d = 2w = 120 mm

Numerical
Problem 2. The shaft of an overhang crank subjected to a force P of 1 kN is shown in figure.
The shaft is made of plain carbon steel 45C8 and the tensile yield strength is 380 N/mm 2. The
factor of safety is 2. Determine the diameter of the shaft using the maximum shear stress
theory.
Solution: Given P = 1 kN Syt = 380 N/mm2 (fs) = 2
Step I Calculation of permissible shear stress
According to maximum shear stress theory,
Ssy = 0.5 Syt = 0.5 (380) = 190 N/mm2
Numerical
The permissible shear stress is given by,

Step II Calculation of bending and torsional shear stresses

The stresses are critical at the point A, which is subjected to combined bending and torsional
moments. At the point A,
Mb = P x (250) = (1000) (250) = 250 x103 N-mm
Mt = P x (500) = (1000) (500) = 500 x 103 N-mm
Numerical
Numerical
Step III Calculation of maximum shear stress
The stresses at point A and corresponding Mohr’s circle are shown in figure.
In the figure,

From Mohr’s circle,

Numerical
Step IV Calculation of shaft diameter

d = 31.06 mm
Numerical
Problem 3. Find the maximum stress induced in the following cases taking stress
concentration into account: (i). A rectangular plate 60 mm × 10 mm with a hole 12 diameter as
shown in figure and subjected to a tensile load of 12 kN. (ii). A stepped shaft as shown in
figure and carrying a tensile load of 12 kN.
Numerical
Solution: Case 1. Given : b = 60 mm ; t = 10 mm ; d = 12 mm ; W = 12 kN = 12 × 103 N
We know that cross-sectional area of the plate,
A = (b – d) t = (60 – 12) 10 = 480 mm2

Ratio of diameter of hole to width of plate,

We find that for d / b = 0.2, theoretical stress concentration factor, K t = 2.5

Maximum stress = Kt × Nominal stress = 2.5 × 25 = 62.5 MPa

Numerical
Solution: Case 2. Given : D = 50 mm ; d = 25 mm ; r = 5 mm ; W = 12 kN = 12 × 103 N
We know that cross-sectional area for the stepped shaft,

Ratio of maximum diameter to minimum diameter, D/d = 50/25 = 2

Ratio of radius of fillet to minimum diameter, r/d = 5/25 = 0.2
We find that for D/d = 2 and r/d = 0.2, theoretical stress concentration factor, K t = 1.64.

∴ Maximum stress = Kt × Nominal stress = 1.64 × 24.4 = 40 MPa

Multiple Choice
Questions
1. The ultimate strength of steel in tension in comparison to shear is in the ratio of
(a) 1: 1 (b) 2:1 (c) 3 : 2 (d) 2 : 3 (e) 1 : 2

2. The permissible stress for carbon steel under static loading is generally taken as
(b) 2000-3000 kg/cm2 (b) 3000-4000 kg/cm2 (c) 4000-4500 kg/cm2 (d) 7500-10,000 kg/cm2 (e) 10,000-15,000
kg/cm2.

3. The property of a material which enables it to resist fracture due to high impact loads is known as
(c) elasticity (b) endurance (c) strength (d) toughness (e) resilience.

4. A hot short metal is

(d) brittle when cold (b) brittle when hot (c) brittle under all conditions (d) ductile at high temperature (e) hard
when hot.

5. Guest's theory of failure is applicable for following type of materials

(a) brittle (b) ductile (c) elastic (d) plastic (e) tough.
Multiple Choice
Questions
6. Rankine's theory of failure is applicable for following type of materials
(a) brittle (b) ductile (c) elastic (d) plastic (e) tough.

7. Tensile strength of a mild steel specimen can be roughly predicted from following hardness test
(a) Brinell (b) Rockwell (c)Vicker (d) Shore's sceleroscope (e) none of the above.

8. Resilience of a material is important; when it is subjected to

(a) Combined loading (b) fatigue (c)thermal stresses (d) wear and tear (e)shock loading.

9. In the case of an elastic bar fixed at upper end and loaded by a falling weight at lower end, the shock load
produced can be decreased by
(a) decreasing the cross-section area of' bar (b) increasing the cross-section area of bar (c) remain unaffected with
cross-section area (d) would depend upon other factors (e) none of the above.
Multiple Choice
Questions
10. Other method of reducing shock load in the above case can be
(a) to decrease length (b) to increase length (c) unaffected by length (d) other factors would decide same (e) none
of the above.

11. If a load W is applied instantaneously on a bar; then the stress induced in bar will
(a) be independent of ratio of mass of load W to mass of bar (y) (b) increase with increase in y (c) decrease with
decrease in y (d) depend on other considerations (e) none of the above.

12. Brittle coating technique is used for

(a) determining brittleness (b) protecting metal against corrosion (c) protecting metal against wear and tear (d)
experimental stress analysis (e)non-destructive testing of metals.

13. Stress concentration is caused due to

(a) variation in properties of material from point to point in a member (b)pitting at points or areas at which loads
on a member are applied (c) abrupt change of section (d) all of the above (e) none of the above.
Multiple Choice
Questions
14. The endurance limit of a material with finished surface in comparison to rough surface is
(a) more (b) less (c) same (d) more or less depending on quantum of load (e) unpredictable.

15. Plastic flow in ductile materials

(a) increases the seriousness of static loading stress concentration (b) lessens the seriousness of static loading
stress concentration (c) has no effect on it (d) depends on other considerations (e) none of the above.
Comprehensive Questions
Question 1. If the base plate carries a load of 120 kN (including self-weight, which is equally distributed on the
four corners), calculate the stress on the lower washers before the nuts are tightened. What could be the stress in
the upper and lower washers, when the nuts are tightened so as to produce a tension of 5 kN on each bolt?

Question 2. The piston rod of a steam engine is 50 mm in diameter and 600 mm long. The diameter of the piston
is 400 mm and the maximum steam pressure is 0.9 N/mm2. Find the compression of the piston rod if the Young's
modulus for the material of the piston rod is 210 kN/mm 2.
University Questions
Question 1. A cantilever beam of circular cross section and 1 m long is subjected to a transverse load of 30 kN at
its free end and an axial load of 60 kN. Determine suitable diameter of the rod taking the allowable normal stress
as 10 MPa. (L2)

Modified Question: A cantilever beam of circular cross section and 1 m long is subjected to a transverse load of
30 kN at its free end and an axial load of 60 kN. Determine suitable diameter of the rod taking the allowable
normal stress as 10 MPa. Discuss the solution in comparison with a bending load of 80 kN and suggest the
suitable diameter. (L4)
University Questions
Question 2. A machine member is subjected to a twisting moment of 2 kN-m and a bending moment of 4 kN-m.
Determine the diameter of the shaft if the normal and shear stresses are 120MPa and 75MPa respectively. (L3)

Modified Question: A machine member is subjected to a twisting moment of 2 kN-m and a bending moment of 4
kN-m. Determine the diameter of the shaft if the normal and shear stresses are 120 MPa and 75 MPa respectively.
Investigate the different materials for same application by considering the factor of safety of not more than 5. (L4)
NPTEL Links
 https://youtu.be/mzWMdZZaHwI
 https://youtu.be/ofmbhbVCUqI
 https://youtu.be/m9l1tVXyFp8
 https://youtu.be/yH04FSBiCdk
 https://youtu.be/Nmnat0qGROk
 https://youtu.be/qVj4VvMmQjc
 https://youtu.be/2xLHFiBOA4M
 Innovative Content Link
 https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jamdsm/12/2/12_2018jamdsm0036/_article
 https://mae.ufl.edu/designlab/Lab%20Assignments/EML2322L-Design%20Process.pdf

FDP Content Link

 https://
www.coursera.org/lecture/machine-design1/module-26-case-study-static-load-analysis-IdtEz
Case Studies
 Failure of a Wire Rope on a Crane: Case study to determine whether a rope failure was
primarily due to an overload event, or to fatigue.
 Failure of an Aircraft Towbar: Case study to highlights potential errors in failure analysis
that may arise when too much importance is placed on relative positions of failed
components, rather than assessing the full implications of every fact in the case.
References
 “Design of Machine Elements”, V B Bhandari, Tata McGraw Hill, 4th Edition, 2016.
 “Mechanical Engineering Design”, Richard G. Budynas and J. Keith Nisbett, Tata McGraw
Hill,10th Edition, 2015.
 “Design of Machine Elements”, R. S. Khurmi and J. K. Gupta, Chand and Company Pvt.
Ltd, 2013.
 https://nptel.ac.in/courses/112/105/112105125/
Thank You