TESOL Grammar Slides

Cambridge International Organization
TESOL Grammar
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Cambridge International
Organization
What is a Pronoun?
• Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun to

avoid its repetition.
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Examples:
Ali is my friend.
He studies at Cambridge International
Organization.
My students are hardworking.

They always get good marks. 3
Organization
What is a Subject Pronoun?
• A subject pronoun is used instead of a subject

in a sentence.
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Organization
Subject Pronouns
I
We
You
They
He
She
It 5
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Continued
1. First Person Pronouns: I/We

2. Second Person Pronoun: You
3. Third Person Pronouns: He/She/It/They
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Organization
Examples:
They do not want peace.

He teases me in the class.
We support our country.
She started MBA last year.
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The Order of Subject Pronouns in a Sentence
Second Person Pronoun + Third Person Pronoun +

First Person Pronoun
Example:
You, they, and I will work on this project. 8
Organization
Exercise 1
1. My students study hard.
2. Javed is the most intelligent student.
3. Dog is a loyal animal.
4. Shazia helps the poor.
5. Naveed and Ahmad make new plans.
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Object Pronoun
• Object pronoun is used instead of object in a

sentence.
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Subject Pronouns Object Pronouns
I Me
We Us
You You
They Them
He Him
She Her
It It
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Examples:
Javed always helps me.

They killed him.
I bought it.
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Exercise 2
1. I teach Ahmad every day.

2. Noman helps Waseem and Zubair.
3. She likes a cat.
4. We support Sarah in difficult time.
5. Bombs injure and kill people. 13
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Possessive Pronouns
• Possessive pronouns are used to show

possession and relationship.
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Subject Pronouns Possessive Pronouns
I Mine
We Ours
You Yours
They Theirs
He His
She Hers
It Its
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Examples:
That car is hers.
My shirt is black, but his is red.
Our problem is not serious, but theirs is serious.
Those buildings are mine.
Naveed is our teacher, but Noman is yours.
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Exercise 3
1. The pen belongs to the boy. It is ______.
2. I drive a car to the office. The car is ____.
3. His coat is more expensive than your coat. His
coat is black, but _____ is white.
4. We submitted the report earlier than them.
_____ was accepted, but ____ was rejected. 17
Organization
Simple Present Tense
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Structures of Simple Present Tense
Positive: Subject + verb (es, s, ies)/ verb1 +
complement
Examples:
My teacher convinces me.
You write wonderful poems.
She cooks yummy food.
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Continued
Negative: Subject + do/does + not + verb1 +
complement
Examples:
My teacher does not convince me.
You do not write wonderful poems.
She does not cook yummy food. 20
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Continued
Interrogative: Do/Does + subject +
verb1 + complement + ?
Examples:
Does my teacher convince me?
Do you write wonderful poems?
Does she cook yummy food? 21
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Rules for (es, ies, s)
1. Verbs ending in (sh, ch, ss, zz, o, x) take (es).
Examples:
Wash= washes
Watch= watches
Pass= passes
Fizz= fizzes
Go= goes
Fix= fixes 22
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Continued
2. Verbs ending in ( consonant + y) change (y) to (i) and put
(es).
Examples:
Study= studies
Fry= fries
Try= tries
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Continued
3. Except the above mentioned rules other verbs take (s).
Examples:
Talk= talks
Speak= speaks
Write= writes
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Usage 1: It indicates daily actions.
Examples:
I wake up at 5:30 in the morning.
They go to university every day.
Murtaza teaches three classes at Cambridge.
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Usage 2: It shows habits.
Examples:
Romal talks a lot.
She eats fast.
They tell lies.
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Usage 3: It shows universal or general fact.
Universal Fact: It is not changeable.
Examples:
Allah is one.
The sun rises in the east.
Milk is white.
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General Fact: It is changeable.
Examples:
I am young.
You study TESOL at Cambridge.
The weather is cold.
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Usage 4: It is used with (when, if, until, as soon as,

whenever) to give future meaning.
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Examples:
When Naveed comes, I will let you know.

If you study hard, you will get good marks.
We will wait here until he comes.
As soon as I get to Mazar, I will call you.
Whenever he gets married, he will go to Canada.
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Usage 5: It is used with adverbs of frequency to show

repetition.
Adverbs of frequency (always, usually, often, sometimes,

hardly ever, seldom, never)
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Examples:
They always convince me.

She never lies.
We often go on a picnic.
Waseem is usually at home.
You are seldom happy.
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Usage 6: It is used with future time expressions to show

future.
Future time expressions (tomorrow, the day after

tomorrow, next week, next month, next year, future date)
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Examples:
Cambridge starts new classes tomorrow.

Ashraf Ghani goes to America next week.
They get married the day after tomorrow.
We have a meeting next week.
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Exercise 1
1. Mary and I ___ (go) to cinema every Friday.
2. Claudie and her friends ___ (have) lunch once a month.
3. My brother Peter ___ (do) karate three days a week.
4. Mr. Dean ___ (be) a baker. He has a big bakery.
5. Mr. and Mrs. Parker ____ (come) from Canada.
6. My parents ____ (love) to travel.
7. Joan is a good teacher. She ____ (prepare) her class with enthusiasm.
8. Ben is a good swimmer. He ____ (swim) 400 meters very fast.
9. John ____ (study) at Bellas Artes School. He ____ (draw) beautiful pictures.
10. Ben’s brothers ____ (be) English teachers.
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Exercise 2
1. My brother ____ (not like) to dance, but he loves having a good talk.
2. Noman ____ (not live) in Kabul; he lives in Mazar.
3. My parents ____ (not be) lawyers; they work in a school.
4. My classmates ____ (not do) their assignments on time.
5. Shazia ____ (not cook) well. She wants to have some cooking lessons.
6. My cousin Lucas ___ (not have) to walk his dog; he pays to someone else to do
that.
7. If you ___ (not study) on time, you will have many problems.
8. Please, ____ (not forget) to do the chores.
9. Mario ___ (not wear) shirts because he ____ (not like) them.
10. Jean and his brothers ____ (not be) twins. 36
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Exercise 3
1. ___ you like to ___ (go) to the movies?
2. ___ your mother ___ (read) the newspaper every day?
3. ___ your cousins ___ (come) to visit you every weekend?
4. ___ Ximena _____ (study) in New York?
5. What ___ you ____ (like) for dinner?
6. What ____ Milena ____ (study)?
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Organization
Present Continuous Tense
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Structures of Present Continuous Tense
Positive: Subject + is/am/are + verbing + Complement.
Examples:
Javed is playing cricket.
They are eating lunch now.
I am writing notes.
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Continued
Negative: Subject + is/am/are + not + verbing + Complement.
Examples:
Javed is not playing cricket.
They are not eating lunch now.
I am not writing notes.
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Continued
Interrogative: Is/Am/Are + subject + verbing + complement + ?
Examples:
Is Javed playing cricket?
Are they eating lunch now?
Am I writing notes?
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Organization
Spelling of -ING
1. If a verb is ending in (consonant + e), drop (e) and add (ing).
Examples: smile = smiling, write = writing
2. If a verb is having (consonant + vowel + consonant), double the last consonant
and add (ing).
Examples: sit = sitting, run = running
3. If a verb is ending in (two vowels + consonant), add only (ing), but do not double
the last consonant.
Examples: read = reading, rain = raining
4. If a verb is ending in (two consonants), add only (ing), but do not double the last
consonant.
Examples: stand = standing, push = pushing 42
Organization
Present Continuous Tense
Use 1: It indicates an action happening right now or at the
moment of speaking.
Examples:
She is singing a song.
We are listening to our teacher.
I am watching a movie.
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Continued
Use 2: It is used with future time expressions to show future.
Future Time Expressions: Tomorrow, the day after tomorrow, next
week, next month, next year, future date etc.
Examples:
I am going to Herat next week.
She is starting her master next year.
Ahmad is meeting his friend tomorrow.
We are buying a new car on 25th February, 2021. 44
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Continued
Use 3. It shows gradual changes.
Examples:
Your English is improving.
The weather is getting colder.
The economy of Afghanistan is becoming better.
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Continued
Use 4. It talks about annoying actions.
• In this case we use “always”.
Examples:
You are always coming to class late.
You are always talking in the class.
He is always disturbing me in the class.
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Continued
Use 5. It shows general actions which are in progress around the
time of speaking but not right now.
Examples:
I am teaching English at Cambridge.
My father is running his shop.
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Exercise 4
1. My son ___ (talk) on the phone right now.
2. _____ (you/sleep)?
3. Jason ___ (do) his homework at the moment.
4. Tom ____ (work) on a project nowadays.
5. His kids ___ (play) in the garden now.
6. Some people ____ (wait) to talk to you.
7. My sister _____ (not cook) today.
8. _____ (Sohail/study) for his exam right now?
9. Jamal and I ____ (paint) the fences today.
10. My children _____ (not listen) to the radio now.
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Organization
Demonstrative Pronouns
• They are used to point out a near or far person, place and
thing.
• They are (this, that, these, those).
• This is used for near singular.
• That is used for far singular.
• These is used for near plural.
• Those is used for far plural.
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Continued
Structure 1:
This
That
These + verb = demonstrative pronouns
Those
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Continued
Examples:
This is a nice building.
That is my boss.
These are his colleagues.
Those are professors.
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Continued
Structure 2:
This
That
These + noun = demonstrative adjectives
Those
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Continued
Examples:
This teacher is hardworking.
That man is my uncle.
These students are lazy.
Those mobiles are mine.
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Interrogative Pronouns
• They are used to ask a question.
• They are (who, whom, which, whose, what).
• Who is used for a person and asks about the subject.
• Whom is used for a person and asks about the object.
• Whose is used for possession.
• Which is used for a thing and sometimes for a person.
• What is used for a thing.
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Continued
Examples:
Who teaches you at Cambridge?
Whom are you talking to?
Which is his favorite car?
Which is your favorite teacher?
Whose is this?
What does he usually play?
What do you do on Friday? 55
Organization
Reflexive Pronouns
• We use reflexive pronouns when we want to refer back to the
subject of the sentence.
• They end in (self) and (selves).
• Singular: myself, yourself, herself, himself, itself.
• Plural: yourselves, ourselves, themselves.
Examples:
I see myself in the mirror.
They prepare themselves. 56
Organization
Positions of Reflexive Pronouns
1. After the verb
Examples:
We help ourselves.
She hurt herself.
2. After the object or at the end
Examples:
They told me themselves.
He trained them himself. 57
Organization
By + Reflexive Pronoun
• By + reflexive pronoun means alone.
Examples:
She goes to school by herself.
We design the buildings by ourselves.
They run their business by themselves.
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Intensive Pronouns
• When reflexive pronouns are used after the subject, they are
called intensive pronouns.
• Intensive pronouns are used for emphasis.
Examples:
He himself told me about the party.
We ourselves organized the whole party.
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Organization
Simple Past
Tense
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Structures of Simple Past Tense
Positive: Subject + verb2 + Complement
Examples:
I brought my homework yesterday.
They started TESOL last week.
Wahab got 110 marks on TOEFL test.
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Continued
Negative: Subject + did + not + verb1 + Complement
Examples:
I did not bring my homework yesterday.
They did not start TESOL last week.
Wahab did not get 110 marks on TOEFL test.
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Continued
Interrogative: Did + subject + verb1 + Complement + ?
Examples:
Did I bring my homework yesterday?
Did they start TESOL last week?
Did Wahab get 110 marks on TOEFL test?
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Organization
Regular Verbs
• They take (d, ed, ied) while changing them from present form
to past form.
Rule 1: Verbs ending in “e” take “d”.

Examples:
Like = liked
Dance = danced
Hate = hated
Decide = decided 64
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Continued
Rule 2: Verbs ending in (consonant + y) so change (y) to (i) and
add (ed).
Examples:
Study = studied
Try = tried
Fry = fried
Dry = dried
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Continued
Rule 3: Except the above mentioned rules other verbs take (ed).
Examples:
Talk = talked
Play = played
Want = wanted
Cook = cooked
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Irregular Verbs
• They do not take (d, ed, ied) while changing them from
present form to past form.
Examples:
Go = went
Come = came
Bring = brought
Buy = bought
Sell = sold 67
Organization
Some Common Irregular Verbs
Think = thought awake = awoke
Teach = taught bear = bore
Sleep = slept become = became
Seek = sought begin = began
Write = wrote bend = bent
Speak = spoke
Tell = told
Eat = ate
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Organization
Simple Past Tense
Usage 1: It shows an action or situation which started and ended
at a particular time in the past.
Examples:
I played cricket with my friends last Friday.
Saleem sold his car yesterday.
He was busy.
They were tired.
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Continued
Usage 2: It talks about past actions or situation.
• In this case we use “used to”.
Examples:
Kamel used to smoke.
We used to play cricket a lot.
People used to be loyal.
My father used to be rich.
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Continued
Usage 3: It shows two actions happened in the past one before
another.
• In this case we use (when, after, before).
Examples:
When I studied hard, I passed the exam.
After he did his homework, he came to class.
Before we started ESP, we finished EFL.
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Continued
Usage 4: It is used with (if/wish) to give present and future
unreal meaning.
Examples:
If he were rich, he would help the poor.
If I knew English, I would teach you.
If we were free tomorrow, we would come to your party.
They wish that they could speak English.
We wish that our country were independent. 72
Organization
Exercise 5
1. We ________ (play) cricket last Friday.
2. They _______ (not sleep) late last night.
3. __________ (you find) a job?
4. Jamal _________ (inform) the police about the murder.
5. She _________ (not wash) the clothes yesterday.
6. _________ (he tell) you about the party?
7. My father ________ (awake) me last night.
8. Sarah ________ (become) a doctor three years ago.
9. You ________ (not call) me yesterday.
10. The students ________ (think) that the teacher was strict. 73
Organization
Past Continuous
Tense
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Structures of Past Continuous Tense
Positive: Subject + was/were + verbing + complement
Examples:
I was playing cricket with my friends.
They were studying for final test last night.
She was cooking rice and meat for lunch.
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Continued
Negative: Subject + was/were + not + verbing + complement
Examples:
I was not playing cricket with my friends.
They were not studying for final test last night.
She was not cooking rice and meat for lunch.
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Continued
Interrogative: Was/Were + subject + verbing + complement + ?
Examples:
Was I playing cricket with my friends?
Were they studying for final test last night?
Was she cooking rice and meat for lunch?
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Organization
Past Continuous Tense
Usage 1: It is used to show an action which was in progress at a
particular time in the past.
Examples:
She was washing the dishes at 2:00 pm yesterday.
We were playing football at 3:30 pm the day before yesterday.
Wahab was watching an Indian movie last night.
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Continued
Usage 2: It is used to indicate an action which was in progress, but
sometimes interrupted by another action.
Structures:
While + Past Continuous Tense+ , + Simple Past Tense
1st 2nd
When + Simple Past Tense+ , + Past Continuous Tense

2nd 1st
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Continued
Examples:
While I was teaching, someone knocked the door.

When someone knocked the door, I was teaching.
While she was peeling onions, she cut her finger.
When she cut her finger, she was peeling onions.
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Continued
Usage 3: It is used to show two actions that were happening
simultaneously or at the same time.
Structure:
While+ past continuous tense+ , + past continuous tense.
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Continued
Examples:
While it was raining, I was going to school.

While the teacher was teaching, we were listening to him.
While Javed was doing his homework, Naveed was watching TV.
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Exercise 6
1. They ________ (play) cricket in the park yesterday.
2. We _________ (help) each other in difficult times.
3. She _______ (prepare) the lunch for 30 guests.
4. Ahmad _______ (teach) his students some important lessons.
5. Waheed _______ (fix) his car the day before yesterday.
6. While ______ (she, cook) rice, she burned herself.
7. When Ali came, I ___________ (do) my homework.
8. While _____ (they, study) last night, the light went off.
9. Hamid and Mahmood ______ (paint) the rooms.
10. I _______ (watch) an Indian movie last night. 83
Organization
Reciprocal Pronouns
• They are used to show mutual relationship.
• They are (each other, one another).
Examples:
We always help each other.
They do not respect one another.
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Indefinite Pronouns
• They are used to talk about an indefinite person and thing.
Examples:
I saw someone in the yard.
She bought something yesterday.
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Kinds of Indefinite Pronouns
1. Personal Indefinite Pronouns
2. Non- Personal Indefinite Pronouns
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Personal Indefinite Pronouns
• They are used to talk about an indefinite person.
• They end in “one” or “body”.
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Continued
Someone
Anyone Formal and
No one common
Everyone
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Continued
Somebody
Anybody
Nobody Informal and
Everybody uncommon
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Continued
Examples:
I met no one at the party.

She saw someone robbing the bank.
Do you help anyone in your neighborhood?
Everyone is ready to support you.
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Organization
Non-Personal Indefinite Pronouns
• They are used to talk about an indefinite thing.

• They end in “thing”.
• They are (something, anything, nothing, everything).
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Continued
Examples:
He found something in the park.

Did you do anything yesterday?
There is nothing at home to eat.
Everything is ready for the party.
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Organization
Usages of Indefinite Pronouns
1. All those indefinite pronouns starting with “some” are

usually used in positive sentences.
Examples:
She always helps someone.
He lost something yesterday.
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Continued
Note: Indefinite pronouns starting with “some” can also be

used in interrogative sentences if we are expecting a positive
response.
Examples:
Would you like to drink something?
Do you need someone to help you?
Would you like to order something? 94
Organization
Continued
2. All those indefinite pronouns starting with “any” are used

in negative and interrogative sentences.
Examples:
I did not meet anyone friendly in Herat.
She does not cook anything on Friday.
Did anyone help you to solve your problems?
Do you eat anything special in the breakfast? 95
Organization
Continued
3. All those indefinite pronouns starting with “no” are used

in positive sentences, but gives a negative meaning.
Examples:
We have nothing to eat.
No one helped me in tough days.
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Organization
Continued
4. All those indefinite pronouns starting with “every” are

used in all sentences.
Examples:
Everyone enjoyed the party.
She did not sell everything that she had.
Did everyone participate in the party?
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Continued
Note: Indefinite pronouns are always followed by a singular verb.
Examples:
Everyone comes to class on time.
Everything is expensive nowadays.
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Relative Pronouns
• They are also called connective pronouns.

• They are used to connect two sentences.
• They are (who, whom, which, that).
• Who is used for people.
• Whom is used for people.
• Which is used for things and animals.
• That is used for things, people and animals.
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Continued
Example:
I met Ashraf Ghani.
He is the president of Afghanistan.
I met Ashraf Ghani, who is the president of Afghanistan.
100
Organization
Continued
Example:
The students are intelligent.
Seerat teaches them.
The students whom Seerat teaches are intelligent.
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Organization
Continued
Example:
The watch is expensive.
She bought it.
The watch which she bought is expensive.
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Continued
Example:
The elephant was very big.
We saw it in the zoo.
The elephant that we saw in the zoo was very big.
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Exercise 7
1. The man was very old.

I helped him.
2. The ring was very expensive.
She lost it.
3. The book was very boring.
Wakeel read it.
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Present Perfect Tense
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Organization
Structures of Present Perfect Tense
Positive: Subject + have/has + verb3 + complement.
Examples:
I have eaten lunch.
She has done her homework.
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Organization
Some Common Irregular Verbs
Think = thought awake = awaken
Teach = taught do = done
Sleep = slept become = become
Seek = sought begin = begun
Write = written bend = bent
Speak = spoken is/am/are = been
Tell = told take = taken
Eat = eaten have = had
See = seen go = gone
Drive = driven come = come
107
Organization
Continued
Negative: Subject + have/has + not + verb3 + complement.
Examples:
I have not eaten lunch.
She has not done her homework.
108
Organization
Continued
Interrogative: Have/Has + subject + verb3 + complement + ?
Examples:
Have I eaten lunch?
Has she done her homework?
109
Organization
Present Perfect Tense
Usage 1: It shows an action or situation which happened at an
unspecific time in the past.
Examples:
She has cooked all the foods.
I have seen snow.
He has been busy.
We have been sad.
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Continued
Usage 2: It shows the repetition of an action whose time is not clear.
• In this case we use (once, twice, a couple of times, thrice, four
times, several times, many times).
Examples:
I have eaten at Barg Restaurant twice.
She has met Salman Khan once.
They have taken TOEFL class many times.
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Continued
Usage 3: It indicates an action or situation which started in the past,
comes to present and may or may not go to future.
• In this case we use (since/for) with durative verbs.
1. Since: It shows the starting time of an action or situation.
Structure: Since + exact time/starting time
2. For: It shows the duration of an action or situation.
Structure: For + duration of time
3. Durative verbs: know, teach, live, work, study, be etc.
112
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Continued
Examples:
I have lived in Kabul since 2017.
Marzia has studied at Cambridge for 6 months.
He has worked at Azizi Bank since 2013.
They have known me for 10 years.
My small brother has been sick since yesterday.
His uncle has been engaged for 3 years.
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Organization
Continued
Usage 4: It denotes an action which has happened or has not
happened before expected time.
• In this case we use (already/yet).
• Already means before now.
• Yet means up to now.
114
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Continued
Examples:
I have already taken breakfast.
She has already done her homework.
We have not eaten lunch yet.
He has not called me yet.
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Organization
Difference Between Been to and Gone to
• (Been to) shows that someone went somewhere, stayed there for a
short time, and then came back.
• It is used with all subjects.
Example: I have been to India many times.
• (Gone to) shows that someone went somewhere, and did not come
back.
• It is used with all subjects except (I/We/You).
Example:
She has gone to Canada. 116
Organization
Exercise 8
1. They __________ (eat) lunch already.
2. She _________ (drive) my car many times.
3. He _________ (teach) English for 8 years.
4. Jameel ________ (write) his homework well.
5. We ___________ (be) busy for a week.
6. The students _________ (not study) for the final exam.
7. Shazia __________ (not cook) all the foods for the guests.
8. I __________ (prepare) myself for TOEFL exam.
9. ___________ (you submit) your report?
10. ___________ (she buy) a gift for you? 117
Organization
Present Perfect Continuous

Tense
118
Organization
Structures of Present Perfect Continuous Tense
Positive: Subject + have/has + been + verbing + complement.
Examples:
I have been teaching for two hours.
She has been working since morning.
119
Organization
Continued
Negative: Subject + have/has + not + been + verbing + complement.
Examples:
I have not been teaching for two hours.
She has not been working since morning.
120
Organization
Continued
Interrogative: Have/Has + subject + been + verbing + complement + ?
Examples:
Have I been teaching for two hours?
Has she been working since morning?
121
Organization
Present Perfect Continuous Tense
Usage 1: It shows an action which started in the past, comes to present,
and may or may not go to future.
• In this case we use (since/for) with durative verbs.
Examples:
I have been teaching English since 2010.
My father has been running his shop for 10 years.
122
Organization
Difference Between Present Perfect Tense and Present
Perfect Continuous Tense
1. Present perfect tense shows interrupted actions, but present
perfect continuous tense shows uninterrupted actions.
Examples:
I have been living in Kabul for 3 years.
I have lived in Kabul for 3 years.
123
Organization
Continued
2. Present perfect tense is commonly used for long background
actions, but present perfect continuous tense is commonly used for
short background actions.
Examples:
She has been washing the clothes for 2 hours. (Better)
She has washed the clothes for 2 hours. (Right)
They have worked at AIB Bank since 2003. (Better)
They have been working at AIB Bank since 2003. (Right) 124
Organization
Exercise 9
1. They _______ (study) in the class for two hours.
2. She ________ (cook) for the guests since afternoon.
3. He ________ (not come) to class for a week.
4. Noman _______ (run) his own business for 5 years.
5. __________ (you wait) for me?
6. __________ (Ahmad teach) at Oxford School since 2017?
7. The kids ________ (play) in the yard since morning.
8. We _________ (watch) TV for one hour.
9. I _________ (try) to call you for 30 minutes.
10. Our teacher ________ (not answer) our questions properly. 125
Organization
Past Perfect Tense
126
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Structures of Past Perfect Tense
Positive: Subject + had + verb3 + complement.
Examples:
We had eaten lunch.
They had done their homework.
127
Organization
Continued
Negative: Subject + had + not + verb3 + complement.
Examples:
We had not eaten lunch.
They had not done their homework.
128
Organization
Continued
Interrogative: Had + subject + verb3 + complement + ?
Examples:
Had we eaten lunch?
Had they done their homework?
129
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Past Perfect Tense
Usage 1: It indicates an action or situation which happened before
another action or situation in the past.
• First action: past perfect tense
• Second action: simple past tense
Structure: Past perfect tense + when/before/by the time + simple past tense.
1st 2nd
130
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Continued
Examples:
We had watched the movie when Javed came.
I had completed BBA before I started MBA.
She had cooked all the foods by the time the guests came.
He had not called me when he left his house.
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Exercise 10
1. He _________ (eat) lunch before he came to class.
2. We ________ (take) entry test when we got admission at university.
3. They _______ (study) hard by the time they got good marks.
4. She _________ (not get) admission before she joined the class.
5. Elyas ________ (take) ablution when he offered the prayer.
6. __________ (you pass) the TOEFL exam?
7. __________ (he take) breakfast?
8. Naseem _________ (call) me before he left the house.
9. We _________ (watch) the movie when they came.
10. I __________ (complete) EFL by the time I started ESP. 132
Organization
Past Perfect Continuous

Tense
133
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Structures of Past Perfect Continuous Tense
Positive: Subject + had + been + verbing + complement.
Examples:
We had been playing cricket for two hours.
She had been studying at Cambridge for six months.
134
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Continued
Negative: Subject + had + not + been + verbing + complement.
Examples:
We had not been playing cricket for two hours.
She had not been studying at Cambridge for six months.
135
Organization
Continued
Interrogative: Had + subject + been + verbing + complement + ?
Examples:
Had we been playing cricket for two hours?
Had she been studying at Cambridge for six months?
136
Organization
Past Perfect Continuous Tense
Usage 1: It indicates an action which was in progress before another
action in the past.
• First action: past perfect continuous tense
• Second action: simple past tense
• Here we use (since/for).
Structure: Past perfect continuous tense + when/before/by the time + simple past tense.
1st 2nd 137
Organization
Continued
Examples:
He had been working at the office for 8 hours before he went home.
Javed had been studying at Kabul Medical University for 7 years when
he became a doctor.
They had been painting the rooms since morning by the time they
took a break.
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Organization
Degrees of Adjective
• There are three degrees of adjective in English grammar.
1. Simple Degree of Adjective

2. Comparative Degree of Adjective
3. Superlative Degree of Adjective
139
Organization
Simple Degree of Adjective
• This degree of adjective describes the quality of a person, place and thing.
Examples:
Saleem is kind.
Our classroom is big.
My mobile is new.
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Organization
Comparative Degree of Adjective
• This degree of adjective is used to compare one person with another person, one
place with another place, and one thing with another thing.
• (Than) is used in comparative degree.
Examples:
Naeem is stronger than Wakeel.
India is more developed than Pakistan.
IPhone 8 plus is more expensive than IPhone 7 plus.
141
Organization
Superlative Degree of Adjective
• This degree of adjective is used to compare one person with a group of persons,
one place with a group of places, and one thing with a group of things.
• The definite article (the) is used in superlative degree.
Examples:
He is the strongest man in his family.
Badakhshan is the nicest province in Afghanistan.
IPhone 12 is the most expensive mobile in the market.
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Organization
How to Form Comparative and Superlative Adjectives
Rule 1: One syllable adjectives will take (er) in comparative and (est) in superlative.
Examples:
Tall = taller Tall = tallest
Short = shorter Short = shortest
Young = younger Young = youngest
Rule 2: One syllable adjectives ending in (e) will take (r) in comparative and (st) in superlative.
Examples:
Nice = nicer Nice = nicest
Large = larger Large = largest
White = whiter White = whitest
143
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Continued
Rule 3: In one syllable adjectives having (consonant + vowel + consonant); the last consonant is
doubled and (er) is added in comparative and (est) in superlative .
Examples:
Hot = hotter Hot = hottest
Big = bigger Big = biggest
Fat = fatter Fat = fattest
Rule 4: Adjectives ending in (consonant + y); change (y) to (i) and add (er) in comparative and
(est) in superlative.
Examples:
Easy = easier Easy = easiest
Happy = happier Happy = happiest
Lazy = lazier Lazy = laziest 144
Organization
Continued
Rule 5: Adjectives of two or more syllables will take (more/less) in comparative and (most/least)
in superlative.
Examples:
Important = more/less important Important = most/least important
Difficult = more/less difficult Difficult = most/least difficult
Interesting = more/less interesting Interesting = most/least interesting
145
Organization
Continued
Rule 6: Use the following adjectives carefully in comparative and superlative degrees.
Senior
Junior
Superior
Inferior
• Use (to) instead of (Than) with the above adjectives in comparative.
• Use (most) after the above adjectives in superlative.
Examples:
Iqbal is senior to Ramish.
Asif is the junior most employee at CIO.
Japanese products are superior to Chinese products.
Q mobiles are the inferior most in the market. 146
Organization
Continued
Rule 7: Irregular adjectives do not take (er, r, ier) in comparative and (est, st, iest) in superlative.
Examples:
Good better best
Bad worse worst
Old older, elder oldest, eldest
Little less least
Many/much more most
Far farther farthest
147
Organization
Simple Future
Tense
148
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Structures of Simple Future Tense
Positive: Subject + will + verb1 + complement.
Examples:
We will call you tonight.
She will start MBA next year.
Khalid will invite us tomorrow.
149
Organization
Continued
Negative: Subject + will + not + verb1 + complement.
Examples:
We will not call you tonight.
She will not start MBA next year.
Khalid will not invite us tomorrow.
150
Organization
Continued
Interrogative: Will + subject + verb1 + complement + ?
Examples:
Will we call you tonight?
Will she start MBA next year?
Will Khalid invite us tomorrow?
151
Organization
Simple Future Tense
Usage: It shows an action or situation which will take place at a
specific time in the future.
• The following three grammatical terms are used to make
simple future tense.
1. Will + verb1
2. Be going to + verb1
3. Shall + verb1
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Organization
Examples
They will buy a new car next week.
We are going to start TESOL after two weeks.
I shall renovate my old house next month.
Javed will be in Canada next year.
She will be busy tomorrow.
We shall not build a new hospital.
I am not going to eat lunch today.
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Organization
Will
• It is a modal auxiliary verb.
• It is commonly used in American English with all subjects.
• It is more formal than “Be going to” in American English.
Usage 1: It talks about future weak plans.
Examples:
We will go to Paghman for picnic.
I will meet you tomorrow. 154
Organization
Continued
Usage 2: It indicates willingness.
Examples:
I will open the door.
I will erase the whiteboard.
155
Organization
Continued
Usage 3: It is used with “you” to make an informal request.
Examples:
Will you teach me English?
Will you cover my class for one day?
156
Organization
Be Going to
• It is an expression.
• It is commonly used in American English with all subjects.
• It is informal.
• “Going to” is reduced to “gonna”.
157
Organization
Continued
Usage 1: It shows actions planned in the present, but will take
place in the future.
• It is stronger than “Will”.
Examples:
I am going to build a hospital in my village next year.
She is going to get married next week.
They are going to go on a picnic tomorrow.
158
Organization
Continued
Usage 2: It talks about someone’s intention and prediction.
Examples:
Ahmad is going to start his own business next year.
Cambridge International Organization is going to open a branch in Herat.
The weather is cloudy. It is going to rain.
He is very hungry. He is going to eat all the food.
159
Organization
Continued
Usage 3: It indicates an action happening in the near future,m;./.
Examples:
I am going to meet you in five minutes.
We are going to have a break.
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Shall
• It is a modal auxiliary verb.
Usage 1: It is commonly used in British English with “I” and “We” to

form simple future tense.
Examples:
I shall go to Canada next year.
We shall have peace.
161
Organization
Continued
Usage 2: It is used with “We” to make a suggestion.
Examples:
Shall we have a party tonight?
Shall we go to Cinema today?
162
Organization
Future
Continuous Tense
163
Organization
Structures of Future Continuous Tense
Positive: Subject + will + be + verbing + complement.
Examples:
I will be playing cricket at 2:00 pm tomorrow.
They will be watching a movie at 8:00 pm tonight.
164
Organization
Continued
Negative: Subject + will + not + be + verbing + complement.
Examples:
I will not be playing cricket at 2:00 pm tomorrow.
They will not be watching a movie at 8:00 pm tonight.
165
Organization
Continued
Interrogative: Will + subject + be + verbing + complement + ?
Examples:
Will I be playing cricket at 2:00 pm tomorrow?
Will they be watching a movie at 8:00 pm tonight?
166
Organization
Future Continuous Tense
Usage 1: It shows an action which will be in progress at a particular
time in the future.
Examples:
We will be playing cricket at 1:30 pm tomorrow.
She will be washing the dishes at 2:30 pm the day after tomorrow.
They will be living in Canada next year.
I will be doing MBA at Oxford University next year.
167
Organization
Continued
Usage 2: It is used to ask about someone’s plan politely.
Examples:
Will you be teaching us next semester?
Will you be starting your own business next year?
168
Organization
Voice
• Voice is a form of verb which shows whether subject is the doer
of an action or receiver of an action.
• There are two kinds of voice in English grammar.
1. Active Voice
2. Passive Voice
169
Organization
Active Voice
• Active voice shows that subject is the doer of an action.
Examples:
I eat a burger.
She wrote a letter.
170
Organization
Passive Voice
• Passive voice shows that subject is the receiver of an action.
Examples:
A burger is eaten by me.
A letter was written by her.
171
Organization
Why do we use active voice?
• we use active voice when we are more interested in the doer of
an action.
Examples:
They play tennis every day.
She has washed all the dishes.
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Why do we use passive voice?
1. We use passive voice when we are more interested in the action.
Example:
The room was painted.
2. We use passive voice when the doer of an action is already clear.
Examples:
The robbers were arrested.
The rice is grown in India.
173
Organization
Continued
3. We use passive voice when the performer of an action is not
clear.
Example:
The window was broken.
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Organization
Changing Active Voice into Passive Voice
1. Divide the sentence into subject, verb and object.
2. Change the subject of active sentence into the object of passive
sentence.
3. Change the object of active sentence into the subject of passive
sentence.
4. Use (Be + verb3) in passive voice.
Example:
We eat pizza.
Pizza is eaten by us. 175
Organization
Simple Present Tense in Passive Voice
Structure: Subject + is/am/are + verb3 + by phrase.
Examples:
I teach my students.
My students are taught by me.
They eat rice.
Rice is eaten by them.
She helps me.
I am helped by her.
176
Organization
Exercise 11
She cooks meat.
We play cricket.
They support me.
He cleans his room.
177
Organization
Present Continuous Tense in Passive Voice
Structure: Subject + is/am/are + being + verb3 + by phrase.
Examples:
She is washing the dishes.
The dishes are being washed by her.
They are playing football.
Football is being played by them.
He is training me.
I am being trained by him.
178
Organization
Exercise 12
He is teaching English.
We are making a cake.
You are writing an essay.
Javed is painting his room.
179
Organization
Simple Past Tense in Passive Voice
Structure: Subject + was/were + verb3 + by phrase.
Examples:
She invited me.
I was invited by her.
They fixed my car.
My car was fixed by them.
We convinced him.
He was convinced by us.
180
Organization
Exercise 13
Shazia cooked rice.
We made new plans.
He wrote his homework.
They sent an email.
181
Organization
Simple Future Tense in Passive Voice
Structure: Subject + will + be+ verb3 + by phrase.
Examples:
I will build a hospital.
A hospital will be built by me.
She will invite us.
We will be invited by her.
They will help you.
You will be helped by them.
182
Organization
Exercise 14
She will cook rice and meat.
We will inform you.
I will do my homework.
He will paint his room.
183
Organization
Present Perfect Tense in Passive Voice
Structure: Subject + have/has + been + verb3 + by phrase.
Examples:
I have eaten lunch.
Lunch has been eaten by me.
He has printed the exam papers.
The exam papers have been printed by him.
They have convinced me.
I have been convinced by them.
184
Organization
Exercise 15
Noman has done his homework.
She has taken a lot of pictures.
We have invited them.
You have broken the window.
185
Organization
Speech
• Speech is the process of conveying one person’s message to
another person.
• There are two kinds of speech in English grammar.
1. Direct Speech
2. Indirect Speech
186
Organization
Direct Speech
• When we convey one person’s message to another person
without any changes, it is called direct speech.
Examples:
Our teacher said, “You do not study hard.”
Noman told him, “You wasted your time.”
Sahar said, “I study hard.”
187
Organization
Indirect Speech
• When we convey one person’s message to another person with
changes, it is called indirect speech.
Examples:
Our teacher said that we did not study hard.
Noman told him that he had wasted his time.
Sahar said that she studied hard.
188
Organization
Writing Direct Speech
• Direct speech has the following two parts:
1. Reporting Speech
2. Reported Speech
Example:
Usman said, “I always try my best to help the poor.”
Reporting Speech Reported Speech

189
Organization
Writing Indirect Speech
• Indirect speech has the following two parts:
1. Main Clause
2. Noun Clause
Example:
Usman said that he always tried his best to help the poor.
Main Clause Noun Clause

190
Organization
Pronouns Changes in Indirect Speech
• Pronouns change in indirect speech according to SON formula.
• S = Subject changes
• O = Object changes
• N = No changes
1. The pronouns (I/We) are changed according to the subject of
reporting verb.
191
Organization
Continued
Examples:
Asad said, “I do not like tea.”
Asad said that he did not like tea.
The students said, “We never give up.”
The students said that they never gave up.
192
Organization
Continued
2. The pronoun (you) is changed according to the object of
reporting verb.
Examples:
Shabnam told me, “You work hard.”
Shabnam told me that I worked hard.
They said to him, “You waste your time.”
They said to him that he wasted his time.
193
Organization
Continued
3. The pronouns (They/He/She/It) are not changed.
Examples:
The teacher said, “They make noise.”
The teacher said that they made noise.
Noman told me, “It is not fair.”
Noman told me that it was not fair.
194
Organization
Tenses in Indirect Speech
1. Simple Present Tense Simple Past Tense
Example:
Elyas said, “I support my country.”
Elyas said that he supported his country.
2. Present Continuous Tense Past Continuous Tense
Example:
She told me, “You are writing fast.”
She told me that I was writing fast.
195
Organization
Continued
3. Present Perfect Tense Past Perfect Tense
Example:
Khalid said, “I have eaten lunch.”
Khalid said that he had eaten lunch.
4. Present Perfect Continuous Tense Past Perfect Continuous Tense
Example:
The students said, “We have been studying for two hours.”
The students said that they had been studying for two hours.
196
Organization
Continued
5. Simple Past Tense Past Perfect Tense
Example:
My father said, “I worked honestly.”
My father said that he had worked honestly.
6. Past Continuous Tense Past Perfect Continuous Tense
Example:
The teachers said, “We were helping our students.”
The teachers said that they had been helping their students.
197
Organization
Exercise 16
1. Iqbal said, “I do not eat fast food.”
2. Sahar told me, “You completed the project unsuccessfully.”
3. They said, “We want peace in our country.”
4. Our teacher said to us, “You need to study hard.”
5. The students said, “We are not satisfied with our teacher.”
6. She said, “I was washing the dishes.”
7. The doctor told me, “You have not taken your medicine on time.”
8. The professor said, “I love to teach hardworking students.”
9. Yasir said, “I play football on Friday.”
10. My mother told me, “You will have a good future.” 198
Organization
Modal Auxiliary Verbs in Indirect Speech
Can could
May might
Will would
Shall should
Could could
Should should
Might might
Must had to
199
Organization
Some Other Words in Indirect Speech
This that
These those
Now then
Thus so
Ago before
Today that day
Tonight that night
Tomorrow the next day or the following day
Yesterday the day before or the previous day
Last week the week before or the previous week 200
Organization
Continued
Last night the previous night
Next week the week after or the following week
Last month the month before or the previous month
Next month a month after
Come go
201
Organization
Continued
Examples:
Shabir said, “I can drive a car.”
Shabir said that he could drive a car.
Farhat said, “I saw my close friend at the party last night.”
Farhat said that she had seen her close friend at the party the night before.
They told me, “You are making a lot of noise now.”
They told me that I was making a lot of noise then.
202
Organization
Exercise 17
1. Maher said, “I can speak four languages.”
2. My teacher told me, “You should come here now.”
3. Yalda said, “They shall come tomorrow.”
4. She said, “I may go to Canada for Master.”
5. The teacher said, “These are important topics.”
6. My father said to me, “You must be patient.”
7. Shams said, “I came to Kabul two months ago.”
8. They said, “We will go to Paghman next week.”
9. He told me, “You called me last night.”
10. His mother told him, “You should not stay out late.” 203
Organization
Note
• If the reporting verb is in simple present tense or simple future tense,
we can not change the tenses.
Examples:
Javed says, “I am tired.”
Javed says that he is tired.
Our teacher will say, “You will fail.”
Our teacher will say we will fail.
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Organization
Tag Question
• Tag question is used to ask about confirmation or it is used to make
sure whether something is true or not.
Examples:
You go to school every day, don’t you?
They came to class yesterday, didn’t they?
He will not buy a new car, will he?
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Organization
Basic Rules for Tag Question
1. If the statement is positive, the tag question is negative.
Example:
You have eaten lunch, haven’t you?
2. If the statement is negative, the tag question is positive.
Example:
Mehria does not teach at the university, does she?
206
Organization
Rules for Writing Tag Question
1. Tag question can be written in the following two styles:
a) contracted negative auxiliary verb + subject + ? (American Style)
b) auxiliary verb + subject + not + ? (British Style)
Example:
He plays cricket every Friday, doesn’t he?
He plays cricket every Friday, does he not?
He plays cricket every Friday, does not he? (Incorrect)
207
Organization
Continued
2. A comma is used before tag question.
Example:
She called you last night, didn’t she?
3. The subject of tag question can never be a noun.
Example:
Noman runs his own business, doesn’t Noman? (Incorrect)
Noman runs his own business, doesn’t he? (Correct)
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Organization
Rules for Tag Question
1. We use (do/does) in simple present tense for tag question.
Examples:
Abid comes to class late, doesn’t he?
They do not like tea, do they?
2. We use (did) in simple past tense for tag question.
Examples:
Mujeeb invited all his friends yesterday, didn’t he?
You did not take IELTS exam last week, did you?
209
Organization
Continued
3. We use (have/has) in present perfect tense for tag question.
Examples:
She has cooked all the foods, hasn’t she?
Our English teacher has not given homework, has he?
4. We use (will) in simple future tense for tag question.
Examples:
Roman will build a hospital for the poor, won’t he?
Darab will not start MBA next year, will he?
210
Organization
Continued
5. We use (they) for personal indefinite pronouns in tag question.
Examples:
Someone broke the window, didn’t they?
No one helps me, do they?
6. We use (it) for non-personal indefinite pronouns in tag question.
Examples:
Something is wrong with my car, isn’t it?
Everything is not okay, is it?
211
Organization
Continued
7. We use (had) for past perfect tense in tag question.
Examples:
They had eaten lunch, hadn’t they?
She had not applied for another job, had she?
8. We use (will you, would you, could you) for imperative sentences in
tag question.
Examples:
Don’t talk in the class, will you?
Respect your elders, would you? 212
Organization
Continued
9. We use (it) for (this/that) in tag question.
Examples:
This is a nice car, isn’t it?
That is not a handsome man, is it?
10. We use (they) for (these/those) in tag question.
Examples:
These are intelligent students, aren’t they?
Those are not my teachers, are they?
213
Organization
Continued
11. We use (can, could, will, would, may, might, should, must, shall) for
(can, could, will, would, may, might, should, must, shall) in tag
question.
Examples:
He can speak English, can’t he?
They will not help you, will they?
We should respect our elders, shouldn’t we?
214
Organization
Continued
12. We use (is, am, are) for present continuous tense in tag question.
Examples:
They are reading a story, aren’t they?
Wakeel is not listening to the teacher, is he?
13. We use (was/were) for past continuous tense in tag question.
Examples:
You were fixing your car, weren’t you?
Diana was not doing her homework, was she?
215
Organization
Continued
14. Negative words (never, hardly ever, seldom, no one, nothing) need a
positive tag question.
Examples:
They hardly ever meet each other, do they?
Nothing is impossible, is it?
216
Organization
Continued
14. Negative words (never, hardly ever, seldom, no one, nothing) need a
positive tag question.
Examples:
They hardly ever meet each other, do they?
Nothing is impossible, is it?
217
Organization
Continued
15. We use (shall we) for (let’s) in tag question.
Examples:
Let’s play football, shall we?
Let’s eat together, shall we?
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Organization
Exercise 18
1. Haroon plays tennis on Friday, ________?
2. We have submitted our report, ________?
3. Latif can write an essay very well, ________?
4. Open the door, ________?
5. She bought a gift for her cousin, ________?
6. I never tell anyone to do something bad, ________?
7. Everything is expensive nowadays, ________?
8. Someone stole my wallet, ________?
9. You are cooking rice now, ________?
10. You will invite all of us to the party, ________? 219
Organization
Clause
• Clause is a group of words having a subject and a verb and forming a
part of sentence.
Examples:
If you work hard, you will always be successful.
clause clause
When I feel bored, I listen to music.

clause clause
220
Organization
Kinds of Clause
• Clause has the following two kinds:
1. Dependent Clause
2. Independent Clause
221
Organization
Independent Clause
• Independent clause can stand alone as a sentence and does not need
a dependent clause to complete its meaning.
• It starts with a subject.
Examples:
While I was eating lunch, my friend called me.
After they graduated from school, they started university.
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Organization
Dependent Clause
• Dependent clause cannot stand alone as a sentence and needs an
independent clause to complete its meaning.
• It starts with a marker.
Examples:
While I was eating lunch, my friend called me.
After they graduated from school, they started university.
223
Organization
Kinds of Independent Clause
• Independent clause has the following two kinds:
1. Main Clause
2. Coordinate Clause
224
Organization
Main Clause
• Main clause always gives a complete meaning.
Examples:
When you come to class, you should call me.
Because I was sick, I could not come to class.
225
Organization
Coordinate Clause
• When two main clauses are combined by coordinate conjunctions, it
is called coordinate clause.
• Coordinate conjunctions are also called (FAN BOYS)
• F = For, A = And, N = Nor, B = But, O = Or, Y = Yet, S = So
Examples:
Farzana was busy, so she did not attend the meeting.
I always study hard, but I get poor marks.
226
Organization
Kinds of Dependent Clause
• Dependent clause has the following three kinds:
1. Adjective Clause
2. Adverb Clause
3. Noun Clause
227
Organization
Adjective Clause
228
Organization
Adjective Clause
• It is a dependent clause.
• It is also known as relative clause.
• It a group of words containing a subject and a verb
and functioning the same as an adjective.
• It modifies, identifies or gives more information
about a noun or a pronoun in the main clause.
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Organization
Key Points about Adjective Clause
• It is introduced by the following three kinds of markers.
1. Relative Pronouns (who, whom, which, that)
2. Relative adjective (whose)
3. Relative adverbs (when, where)
• It is never used in questions.
• A noun, pronoun or sometimes the whole main clause modified by adjective
clause is known as antecedent, referent, head noun or modified noun.
• It should be made from the second sentence.
• It should be used as close as possible to its antecedent. (rule of proximity)
• It can be embedded or unembedded.
230
Organization
Examples of Adjective Clause
Ashraf Ghani, who is the president of Afghanistan, is from Logar.
I bought a mobile which is very expensive.
He who comes late will be punished.
My father passed away, which made us sad.
231
Organization
Embedded Adjective Clause
• When an adjective clause comes in the middle of main clause, it
is called embedded adjective clause.
1. Subject ─ Subject = embedded

Example:
The teacher is kind.
He teaches English.
The teacher who teaches English is kind.

232
Organization
Continued
2. Subject ─ Object = embedded
Example:
The treasure is precious.
I found it.
The treasure which I found is precious.
233
Organization
Unembedded Adjective Clause
• When an adjective clause comes after main clause, it is called
unembedded adjective clause.
1. Object ─ Subject = unembedded

Example:
They helped a man.
He was very old.
They helped a man who was very old. 234

Organization
Continued
2. Object ─ Object = unembedded
Example:
They built a mosque.
We painted it.
They built a mosque which we painted.
235
Organization
Relative Pronouns
• Relative pronouns are also called connective pronouns.
• They are used to connect adjective clause with main clause.
• They are (who, whom, which, that).
• Who is used for people.
• Whom is used for people.
• Which is used for things and animals.
• That is used for people, things and animals.
236
Organization
Cases of Relative Pronouns in Adjective Clause
• Relative pronouns have the following three cases in adjective clause.
1. Subjective Case/Nominative Case: In this case a relative pronoun is used to

replace subject of the verb.
• In this case all relative pronouns are used except (Whom).
• Who is formal.
• Which is formal.
• That is informal.
• Whom is not used.
• In this case deletion of relative pronouns is not possible.
Structure: Who/Which/That + verb + complement. 237
Organization
Examples of Subjective Case
The students get good marks.
They study hard.
The students who study hard get good marks.
She bought a ring.

It is made of gold.
She bought a ring which is made of gold.
They found a treasure.

It is very precious.
They found a treasure that is very precious.
238
Organization
Exercise 19
I do not like history.
It is a boring subject.
I met a teacher.
He teaches at Kardan University.
They opened a restaurant.

It serves yummy pizza.
She watches Shabake Khanda.

It is an interesting TV program.
239
Organization
Continued
2. Objective Case/Accusative Case: In this case a relative
pronoun is used to replace object of the verb.
• In this case all relative pronouns are used.
• Who is informal.
• Whom is formal.
• In this case deletion of relative pronouns is possible.
• When a relative pronoun is deleted from an adjective clause, it is called zero,
contact or unmarked adjective clause.
Structure: Who/Whom/Which/That + subject + verb + complement. 240
Organization
Examples of Objective Case
The man was very old.
I helped him cross the road.
The man whom I helped cross the road was very old.
The man I helped cross the road was very old.
The speech was effusive.

Haroon delivered it.
The speech which Haroon delivered was effusive.
The speech Haroon delivered was effusive.
The employees did not comply with the firm’s rules.

The boss terminated them.
The employees whom the boss terminated did not comply with the firm’s rules.
The employees the boss terminated did not comply with the firm’s rules.
241
Organization
Exercise 20
Turkish Serials are boring.
I do not watch them.
Michael Swan writes effective books.

Everyone wants to read them.
The students are from Laghman.

Professor Javed teaches them.
Iphone 12 Pro Max is an expensive mobile.

Everyone cannot buy it.
242
Organization
Continued
3. Oblique Case: In this case a relative pronoun is used to replace the object
of preposition.
• In this case all relative pronouns are used.
• Who is informal.
• Whom is formal.
Structure 1: preposition + whom/which + subject + verb + complement. (Formal)
Structure 2: who/whom/which/that + subject + verb + preposition + complement. (Informal)
243
Organization
Continued
Note: In structure 1 deletion of relative pronouns is not possible. However, in
structure 2 deletion of relative pronouns is possible.
244
Organization
Examples of Oblique Case
The man died.
We talked about him last night.
The man about whom we talked last night died.

The man whom we talked about last night died.
The man we talked about last night died.
245
Organization
Continued
The city is insecure.
I live in it.
The city in which I live is insecure.

The city which I live in is insecure.
The city I live in is insecure.
246
Organization
Exercise 21
I love Prof. Abdul Hakim.
I have learned many things from him.
The treasure is precious.

Everyone is looking for it.
Security is very important.

We talked about it yesterday.
247
Organization
Using Whose
• It is a relative adjective.
• It shows possession and relationship.
• It is used to combine adjective clause with main clause.
• It is used for people, things and animals.
• It is used to replace a possessive adjective in the second sentence.
• Possessive adjectives are (my, our, your, their, his, her, its).
• It is always followed by a noun (whose + noun).
• It cannot be deleted or replaced.
Structure 1: whose + noun + verb + complement.

Structure 2: whose + noun + subject + verb + complement. 248
Organization
Examples of Whose
The students are intelligent.
Their teacher is hardworking.
The students whose teacher is hardworking are intelligent.
Reshad bought a car.

Its color is black.
Reshad bought a car whose color is black.
249
Organization
Continued
I met a man.
The terrorists killed his son.
I met a man whose son the terrorists killed.
Ajmal built a mosque.

I painted its windows.
Ajmal built a mosque whose windows I painted.

250
Organization
Exercise 22
I met a man yesterday.
His son is a doctor.
My father bought a mobile.

Its price is $1500.
Darab wrote an essay.

I corrected its mistakes.
251
Organization
Using When
• It is a relative adverb.
• It modifies a noun of time.
• It can be deleted.
Structure: when + subject + verb + complement.
252
Organization
Examples of When
I will never forget the day.
My grandfather died then.
I will never forget the day when my grandfather died.

I will never forget the day my grandfather died.
September is the month.

My brother got a job then.
September is the month when my brother got a job.

September is the month my brother got a job.
253
Organization
Exercise 23
4:00 pm is the time.
Your class starts then.
July is the month.

The weather is very hot then.
254
Organization
Using Where
• It is a relative adverb.
• It modifies a place.
• It cannot be deleted.
Structure: where + subject + verb + complement.
255
Organization
Examples of Where
The building is very old.
My uncle lives there.
The building where my uncle lives is very old.
The restaurant is modern.

I usually go there.
The restaurant where I usually go is modern.

256
Organization
Exercise 24
The park is nice.
We usually go there.
The restaurant serves yummy food.

We always eat there.
257
Organization
Kinds of Adjective Clause
1. Restrictive adjective clause
2. Non-restrictive adjective clause
258
Organization
Restrictive Adjective Clause
• It is also called essential adjective clause.
• Its antecedent is a common noun.
• No commas are used.
• It gives necessary information about the antecedent.
• All relative pronouns are used.
Examples:
The teacher who teaches English is very kind.
The book which you gifted to me is interesting.
259
Organization
Non-restrictive Adjective Clause
• It is also called nonessential adjective clause.
• Its antecedent is a proper noun.
• A comma or commas are used.
• It gives extra information about the antecedent.
• All relative pronouns are used except (that).
Examples:
Amir Khan, who is an Indian actor, has a lot of fans.
My uncle teaches at Kardan, which is one of the best universities.
260
Organization
Exercise 25
The man who killed himself was very poor.
I eat at Bukhara, which is my favorite restaurant.
The mobile which Baktash lost was Iphone 12.
Dr. Zakir, who is an Islamic scholar, has a lot of followers all around the world.
The car which Massoud crashed with was expensive.
We always go to Paghman, which is a nice picnic spot.
261
Organization
Changing Adjective Clause into Adjective Phrase
• It is also called reduction of adjective clause into adjective phrase.
Question 1: When can we change adjective clause into adjective phrase?
Answer: We can change adjective clause into adjective phrase when relative
pronouns are used in subjective case.
Question 2: How can we change adjective clause into adjective phrase?

Answer: We have the following steps for changing adjective clause into
adjective phrase.
1. Delete the subject (who, which, that).
2. Delete to be verbs (is, am, are).
3. Sometimes change (to be verbs) into (being). 262
Organization
Continued
4. Change the active main verb into its (ing) form.
5. No change will take place in passive main verb.
Examples:
Salman Khan, who is an Indian actor, makes action movies.
Salman Khan, an Indian actor, makes action movies.
I met a teacher who teaches at American University.

I met a teacher teaching at American University.
263
Organization
Continued
The students who are failed in the final exam will leave the class.
The students failed in the final exam will leave the class.
The students who are lazy will fail.

The students being lazy will fail.
The machine which makes a lot of noise is very old.

The machine making a lot of noise is very old.
264
Organization
Exercise 26
The teachers who teach well are honest.
Afghanistan, which is located in the heart of Asia, is a poor country.
The students who are late to class every day will lose the marks.
The doctor who is lazy cannot treat patients properly.
265
Organization
Adverb Clause
266
Organization
Adverb Clause
• It starts with a subordinate conjunction.
• It can be used before or after main clause.
Examples:
When my father comes, I will call you.
I will call you when my father comes.
267
Organization
Subordinate Conjunctions
• when, while, whenever, since, because, if, although, even
though etc.
Examples:
When you have free time, you can call me.
While I was writing my homework, my father called me.
Whenever I am bored, I listen to music.
We respect him since he is our teacher.
Because she was sick, she could not go to school.
If you invite me, I will come to your party.
268
Organization
Continued
Although he comes to class every day, the teacher marks him absent.
He got the highest marks in the class even though he did not study
hard.
269
Organization
Noun Clause
• It starts with (that/WH words/if/whether).
• It is a group of words having a subject and a verb and
functioning the same as a noun.
270
Organization
Examples of Noun Clause
What we want is peace.
That Allah is one is a fact.
He asked me if I was busy.
They asked him whether he was at home.
271
Organization
Sentence
• It is a group of words having a subject and a predicate and
always giving a complete meaning.
Examples:
They support their country.
subj predicate
272
Organization
Sentence According to Structure
1. Simple Sentence
2. Compound Sentence
3. Complex Sentence
4. Compound-Complex Sentence
273
Organization
Simple Sentence
• It has one main clause.
Examples:
We help each other.
She cooks yummy food.
Naveed is a nice person.
274
Organization
Compound Sentence
• When two main clauses are combined by (FAN BOYS), it is
called compound sentence.
• F = for, A = and, N = nor, B = but, O = or, Y= yet, S = so
Examples:
I did not come to class, for I was sick.
They did not invite him to the party, nor did he go.
We studied hard, yet the teacher failed us.
275
Organization
Complex Sentence
• It has one independent clause and one dependent clause.
Examples:
While she was cooking rice, she burned her hand.
Because I study a lot, I always get the highest marks in the class.
Although our leaders are traitors, we support them.
276
Organization
Compound-Complex Sentence
• It has one dependent clause and two independent clauses.
Examples:
If you are in a tough situation, you can call me, so I will help you.
Since tomorrow is Friday, the class is off, and the students should
study at home.
277
Organization
Exercise 27
The teachers should always help their students.
Since Islam is our religion, we have to obey all its rules.
They are lazy, but we are intelligent.
While she was sleeping, her daughter woke her up, for she had a nightmare.
278
Organization
Sentence According to Meaning
1. Declarative Sentence
2. Interrogative Sentence
3. Imperative Sentence
4. Optative Sentence
5. Absolute Segment Sentence
6. Exclamatory Sentence
279
Organization
Declarative Sentence
• It shows fact.
• It can be positive or negative.
• It ends with a full stop.
Examples:
I love my country.
Islam is the best religion.
They did not invite me.
280
Organization
Interrogative Sentence
• It is used to ask a question.
• It ends with a question mark.
Examples:
Will you buy a new house?
Did he get married?
Do they support you?
281
Organization
Imperative Sentence
• It is used for the following purposes.
1. Order
Example: Bring me a glass of water.
2. Request
Example: Please, cover my class for one day.
3. Advice
Example: Respect your elders. 282
Organization
Continued
4. Prohibition
Example: Don’t park your car here.
5. Instruction
Example: Pour one spoon of oil into the frying fan.
6. Direction
Example: Go straight and turn left.
283
Organization
Kinds of Imperative Sentence
1. Positive Imperative
2. Negative Imperative
3. Emphatic Imperative
284
Organization
Positive Imperative
• It tells someone to do something.
• It starts with verb1.
Examples:
Call me.
Bring your homework tomorrow.
Study hard for the exam.
285
Organization
Negative Imperative
• It tells someone not to do something.
• It starts with (Don’t).
Examples:
Don’t talk with me.
Don’t touch the wire.
Don’t tease people.
286
Organization
Emphatic Imperative
• It is used for emphasis.
• It starts with (Do).
Examples:
Do come to class on time.
Do bring your assignment.
Do go to school today.
287
Organization
Optative Sentence
• It is used for wish, ill-wish, and prayer.
Examples:
May you have a nice future.
May you fail in your business.
May Allah guide you to the right path.
288
Organization
Absolute Segment Sentence
• It is a sentence having no subject and verb, but giving a
complete meaning.
Examples:
Good luck.
Congratulations.
Happy birthday.
289
Organization
Exclamatory Sentence
• It is used to show sudden feelings of mind.
• It ends with an exclamatory sign.
Examples:
What a nice car you have!
How fluently you speak!
290
Organization
Exercise 28
1. Good luck.
2. Did they bring their assignments yesterday?
3. How fast you speak!
4. Afghans are brave.
5. Don’t listen to stupid people.
6. Help the poor.
7. May you not have a bad day in the hereafter.
8. Good night.
9. May you reach to the peak of success.
10.I do not hurt people’s feelings. 291
Organization
Finite Verbs
• They are limited by tenses and number of persons.
• They indicate tenses.
Examples:
She plays tennis a lot.
We saw Ahmad yesterday.
They help the poor.
292
Organization
Non-finite Verbs
• They are not limited by tenses and number of persons.
• They do not indicate tenses.
• There are three non-finite verbs:
1. Gerund (Verbing as a noun)

2. Infinitive (To+verb1 as a noun)
3. Participle (verbing and verb3 as a verb)
293
Organization
Examples of Gerund
She enjoys playing chess.

We enjoy playing chess.
They enjoyed playing chess.
294
Organization
Examples of Infinitive
We decide to go to Canada.
She decides to go to Canada.
Wakeel decided to go to Canada.
295
Organization
Examples of Participle
I am writing the notes.

She is writing the notes.
They are writing the notes.
He has eaten lunch.

We have eaten lunch.
They had eaten lunch.
296
Organization
Gerund
• Verbing which functions as a noun is called gerund.

• Gerund is used to name an action.
Examples:
Teaching is a sacred job.
Mustafa enjoys playing cricket.
She is tired of cooking.
297
Organization
Cases of Gerund
1. Subjective Case/Nominative Case: In this case gerund is used as the
subject of verb or sentence.
Examples:
Writing a book needs a lot of knowledge.
Teaching lazy students is tough.
Working and studying are difficult.
298
Organization
Continued
2. Objective Case/Accusative Case: In this case gerund is used after
gerund verb.
• Gerund Verb: It is a verb used before gerund.
• Gerund verbs (admit, enjoy, deny, avoid, complete, consider, continue,
hate, love, mention, quit, recall, remember, suggest etc).
Examples:
He admits stealing my mobile.
We enjoy going on a picnic.
They deny killing Ali. 299
Organization
Continued
3. Oblique Case: In this case gerund is used as the object of preposition.
• This case is introduced by the following three structures:
Structure 1: adjective + preposition + gerund
• accustomed to, addicted to, afraid of, anxious about, bored of, capable of,
committed to, concerned about, content with, dedicated to, excited
about, interested in, proud of etc.
Examples:
We are accustomed to working a lot.
He is addicted to smoking.
They are interested in learning English. 300
Organization
Continued
Structure 2: noun + preposition + gerund
• addiction to, anxiety about, dedication to, fear of, habit of, interest in,
regret for, memory of, reaction to, reason for etc.
Examples:
His addiction to using Facebook is a problem.
I will never forget the memory of travelling in Paris.
They have the habit of going to office late.
301
Organization
Continued
Structure 3: verb + preposition + gerund
• agree with, disagree with, apologize for, insist on, think about, put off,
complain about, give up, talk about, succeed in, worry about etc.
Examples:
Our teacher insists on coming to class early.
We think about going to Canada.
She put off buying a new car.
302
Organization
Continued
4. Gerund as the Complement of Be: In this case gerund is used after to
be verb.
Examples:
My hobby is watching movies.
Their desire is helping the nation.
Our mission is eliminating terrorism.
Her plans are borrowing money from Azizi Bank and starting her own business.
303
Organization
Continued
5. Gerund is used after the verb (go) to talk about recreational activities.
Examples:
I will go camping.
She went shopping yesterday.
We go hunting every day.
304
Organization
Infinitive
• To + verb1 which functions as a noun is called infinitive.
• Infinitive is used to name an action.
• In infinitive (to) before (verb1) is called infinitive marker.
Examples:
To help the poor has a lot of rewards.
We plan to open a fast food restaurant.
You are doing nothing else except to waste your time.
305
Organization
Cases of Infinitive
1. Subjective Case/Nominative Case: In this case infinitive is used as
the subject of verb or sentence.
Examples:
To learn English is important.
To teach and to control students are tough.
To find a job nowadays is difficult.
306
Organization
Continued
2. Objective Case/Accusative Case: In this case infinitive is used after
infinitive verb.
• Infinitive Verb: It is used before infinitive.
• Infinitive verbs (agree, begin, cease, choose, claim, continue, decide,
deserve, dread, expect, forget, hope, intend, learn, need, like, plan, prefer,
prepare etc).
Examples:
I agree to help you.
They like to play football.
We decided to build a hospital for the poor. 307
Organization
Continued
3. Oblique Case: In this case infinitive is used as the object of preposition.
• In this case we use the prepositions (but/except).
• But and except mean without.
Examples:
They are not saving money but to waste it.
You are doing nothing else except to cheat yourself.
308
Organization
Continued
4. Infinitive as the Complement of Be: In this case infinitive is used
after to be verb.
Examples:
My goal is to serve my nation.
Their plans are to educate people and to give them jobs.
Her desire is to go to Canada.
309
Organization
Kinds of Infinitive
1. Full/Absolute Infinitive
2. Bare/Plain Infinitive
3. Split Infinitive
310
Organization
Full Infinitive
• This kind of infinitive is (to + verb1).
Examples:
We want to help the nation.
I love to swim.
311
Organization
Bare Infinitive
• This kind of infinitive is only (verb1) without the infinitive marker (to).
Examples:
They should study hard.
I will support you.
312
Organization
Split Infinitive
• This kind of infinitive is (to + adverb + verb1).
Examples:
We want to successfully complete this project.
She plans to quickly submit the report.
313
Organization
Phrase
• It is a group of words having no subject and verb and giving a particular
meaning.
Some Facts About Phrase

1. Sometimes it has verb but not subject.
2. Sometimes it has subject but not verb.
3. It is always used as a part of sentence.
4. The kind of phrase is determined by the head word and its function.
Example:
We were on the road.
prepositional phrase/adverb phrase 314
Organization
Kinds of Phrase
1. Noun Phrase
2. Verb Phrase
3. Adjective Phrase
4. Adverb Phrase
5. Gerund Phrase
6. Infinitive Phrase
7. Appositive Phrase
8. Prepositional Phrase
9. Participle Phrase
10. Absolute Phrase
315
Organization
Noun Phrase
• It is a phrase whose head word is a noun.
Examples:
Shafi is the manager of Azizi Bank.
Parts of sentence is an important topic.
316
Organization
Verb Phrase
• It is a phrase whose head word is a verb with its modifier such as
complement and object.
Examples:
We eat lunch.
They are teachers.
317
Organization
Adjective Phrase
• It is a phrase whose head word is an adjective with its complement and
modifiers.
Examples:
He is a kind man.
I don’t like cold weather.
318
Organization
Adverb Phrase
• It is a phrase whose head word is an adverb along with its modifiers.
Examples:
He played too poorly last night.
Weather is too cold and dry.
• It also answers the following questions:

1. Where?
2. When?
3. Why?
4. How? 319
Organization
Continued
Examples:
We are in the class.
She goes to office at 7:30 Am.
Being a teacher, I have to treat all the students equally.
She walks slowly in the park.
320
Organization
Gerund Phrase
• It is a phrase whose head word is gerund with its modifiers such as noun,
pronoun, adverb and prepositional phrase.
Examples:
Cooking Biryani is tough.
Advising him is a waste of time.
Running fast needs more stamina.
Exercising in the morning is good.
321
Organization
Infinitive Phrase
• It is a phrase whose head word is infinitive with its modifiers such as
noun, pronoun, adverb and prepositional phrase.
Examples:
To train employees is important.
We decided to inform them.
To walk slowly is boring.
She planned to live in Germany.
322
Organization
Appositive Phrase
• It is a phrase that is formed from the reduction of adjective clause to
adjective phrase.
Examples:
Amrullah Salih, the vice president, is from Panjsher.
I met Ashraf Ghani, the president of Afghanistan.
323
Organization
Prepositional Phrase
• It is a phrase whose head word is a preposition.
• It can function as an adjective phrase or adverb phrase.
Examples:
We are studying in the class.
He comes at 4:00 pm.
The woman in the red dress is an actress.
The car on the road is mine.
324
Organization
Participle Phrase
• It is a phrase whose head word is a present participle (verbing) or a past
participle (verb3).
• It can function as an adjective phrase or adverb phrase.
Examples:
Afghanistan, located in Asia, is a poor country.
Being too much busy, I can’t find time to meet friends.
The boy sitting next to me is from Logar.
Having spent all his money, he has no money now.
325
Organization
Absolute Phrase
• It is a phrase which has a subject but not finite verb.
Examples:
The singer’s performance in the concert, the organizers were so happy.
The actor’s entry in the movie, the audience started clapping and screaming.
326
Organization
Exercise 29
1. Joe Biden is the president of America.
2. The book on the table is mine.
3. Salman Khan, the Indian actor, is very famous.
4. Going to Turkey is easy nowadays.
5. Her eyes on the door, when she came.
6. They played too poorly yesterday.
7. To publish a book needs money.
8. The man standing next to Asad is a professor.
9. We want peace in our country.
10. They are brutal people. 327
Organization
Conditional Sentence
• It is used to show a condition with its result.
• It has the following two parts:
1. If clause
2. Result clause
Example
If you study hard, you will get the highest marks.
If clause Result clause
328
Organization
Kinds of Conditional Sentence
1. Zero Conditional Sentence

2. Real Conditional Sentence
3. Unreal Conditional Sentence
4. Counterfactual Conditional Sentence
5. Mixed Time Conditional Sentence
329
Organization
Zero Conditional Sentence
• It shows that the result takes place without the condition.
• Here (if) means (when).
Structure:
If Clause Result Clause
Simple Present Tense Simple Present Tense
Examples:
If I have headache, I wash my head with warm water.
If the temperature reaches to 32 0F, water freezes. 330
Organization
Real Conditional Sentence
• It is used to show that the result will take place if the condition takes
place first.
Structure:
Simple Present Tense will/can/may + verb1
Examples:
If you invite me to the party, I will come.
If they exercise a lot, they can lose weight.
If I have free time tomorrow, I may see you in the park. 331
Organization
Unreal Conditional Sentence
• It is used to show present and future unreal condition and result.
Structure:
Simple Past Tense would/could/might + verb1
Examples:
If I had money, I would lend you.
If they knew English, they could teach me.
If she were free, she might meet you. 332
Organization
Counterfactual Conditional Sentence
• It is used to show past unreal condition and result.
Structure:
Past Perfect Tense would/could/might + have + verb3
Examples:
If we had played well, we would have won the final match.
If she had studied hard, she could have passed the final test.
If you had not misbehaved in the class, the teacher might not have punished you. 333
Organization
Mixed Time Conditional Sentence
• It is used to show past unreal condition with present unreal result.
Structure:
Past Perfect Tense would/could/might + verb1
Examples:
If you had saved your money, you could start your own business now.
If you had helped Javed yesterday, he might help you today.
If they had learned English, they would be teachers now. 334
Organization
Transitions
• They are also called conjunctive adverbs or discourse markers.
• They are used to connect two ideas and take us from one idea to another
idea.
• They are used to connect sentences or ideas in a paragraph.
• They are used to make our writing interesting and clear.
• They are used with second sentence.
Examples:
I teach at Cambridge. In addition, I run my own business.
They always help people; however, people do not help them.
335
Organization
Punctuation of Transitions
• Transitions can be punctuated in the following two ways.
1. Separate Way:
Examples:
I didn’t study hard. Nevertheless, I got the highest marks on the test.
I didn’t study hard. I, nevertheless, got the highest marks on the test.
I didn’t study hard. I got the highest marks on the test, nevertheless.
336
Organization
Continued
2. Combined Way:
Examples:
I didn’t study hard; nevertheless, I got the highest marks on the test.
I didn’t study hard; I, nevertheless, got the highest marks on the test.
I didn’t study hard; I got the highest marks on the test, nevertheless.
337
Organization
Common Transitions
1:
In addition
Moreover
Furthermore
Besides = they are used for giving more information.
Example:
He studies at University. In addition, he has a part time job.
338
Organization
Continued
2:
For example
For instance = they are used for giving examples.
Example:
Sohail can speak several languages; for example, he can speak English,
German, Chinese and Spanish.
339
Organization
Continued
3:
However
Nevertheless
Nonetheless
On the other hand = they are used instead of “but” to show contrast.
Example:
He studies hard. However, he always gets poor marks.
340
Organization
Continued
4:
All in all
To sum up
In all
In closing
Eventually
At last
Finally
As a result = they are used for showing conclusion.
341
Organization
Continued
5:
Meanwhile means at the same time.
Example:
I was doing my homework. Meanwhile, my small brother was reading.
6:
In fact
Indeed
As a matter of fact = used for showing reality.
Example:
Many people love Amir Khan; in fact, he is a brilliant actor. 342
Organization
Continued
7:
Similarly
Likewise = used for showing similarity.
Example:
I drive the car so fast. Likewise, my brother do it.
8:
First
Second/secondly
Third = they are used for sequence. 343
Organization
Continued
9:
therefore
Thus
Consequently = they are used to show cause and effect.
Example:
He was sick. Thus, he did not come to class.
344
Organization
Exercise 30
in fact in addition for example
however consequently meanwhile
1. I have failed many times in my life. ______________________, I have never felt

disappointed.
2. Saleem was watching TV last night; ______________________, his brother was using
Facebook.
3. A leader should have all the traits of a leader. ______________________, he should be
honest, committed, wise, creative and hardworking.
4. We played poorly against our opponents; ______________________, we lost the match.
5. Many people admire Shahrukh Khan in India. ______________________, he is the best actor
in Indian film industry.
6. Farzana studies Medical at Kabul University; ______________________, she works as a nurse
at Dar-ul-Salam Hospital. 345
Organization
Exercise 31
First Moreover Secondly Finally
You should learn English at one of the best universities, called Kardan. There are so many
reasons that have made Kardan the best university in the region._____, it has well-qualified
and well-experienced teachers who teach their students effectively and get them study
hard. __________, it has proper management through which the classes are properly
managed. In addition, it has well-equipped classes and the teachers do not feel lack of
teaching material during teaching hours. It has an innovative atmosphere for learning
English. ___________, its management always takes care of students’ rights, and do not
violate them. It has a modern library with different kinds of books which are necessary for
the improvement of students in English field. In addition, it has been serving in the region
for more than two decades. ___________, Kardan is a desirable place to start English at.
346
Organization
Adverb
• It modifies a verb, adjective and another adverb.
Examples:
He speaks fast.
She is very happy.
They run too slowly.
347
Organization
Continued
• Adverb answers the following questions:
1. when?
2. where?
3. How?
4. To what degree?
5. Under what condition?
348
Organization
Examples
He comes at 4:00 pm.
She goes to school.
You should work professionally.
They are too lazy.
349
Organization
Adverb of Manner
• It answers the question “How?”.
• It shows how someone does something.
• It modifies the verb.
• It is formed by adding “ly, ily, ally” to an adjective.
Examples:
Saleem writes quickly.
We live happily.
They always work systematically.
350
Organization
Formation of Adverbs of Manner
1. Most adjectives take “ly” to become adverbs.
Examples:
quick = quickly
bad = badly
slow = slowly
clear = clearly
351
Organization
Continued
2. We use “ily” when an adjective ends in “y”.
Examples:
happy = happily
crazy = crazily
heavy = heavily
pretty = prettily
352
Organization
Continued
3. We use “ally” when an adjective ends in “ic”.
Examples:
romantic = romantically
systematic = systematically
fantastic = fantastically
basic = basically
353
Organization
Continued
Note: The following adjectives do not take “ly, ily, ally”:
Examples:
fast = fast
hard = hard
well = well
late = late
354
Organization
Adverbs of Frequency
• They show repetition of an action or state.
• They have two kinds.
1. Definite Adverbs of Frequency

2. Indefinite Adverbs of Frequency
355
Organization
Definite Adverbs of Frequency
• They show exact repetition.
• They are (once, twice, a couple of times, thrice, four times, five times etc).
Examples:
He meets his friends twice a week.
We eat three times a day.
356
Organization
Indefinite Adverbs of Frequency
• They do not show exact repetition.
Always = 100%
Usually = 90%
Often = 70%
Sometimes = 50%
Seldom = 10%
Hardly ever/ rarely = 5%
Never = 0%
357
Organization
Examples
They always help the poor.
We usually go on a picnic.
He often plays tennis.
She sometimes reads a newspaper.
Rafiullah seldom calls me.
I hardly ever watch a movie.
Saleem never lies.
358
Organization
Positions of Indefinite Adverbs of Frequency
1. Before main verb
Examples:
She usually goes to office late.
We sometimes play football.
2. After to be verb
Examples:
He is always sleepy.
Afghans are never united.
359
Organization
Continued
3. After modal auxiliary verb
Examples:
I will always support you.
You should sometimes go running.
360
Organization
Future Perfect
Tense
361
Organization
Structures of Future Perfect Tense
Positive: Subject + will + have + verb 3 + complement.
Examples:
I will have completed BBA.
She will have cooked all the foods.
362
Organization
Continued
Negative: Subject + will + not + have + verb 3 + complement.
Examples:
I will not have completed BBA.
She will not have cooked all the foods.
363
Organization
Continued
Interrogative: Will + subject + have + verb 3 + complement + ?
Examples:
Will I have completed BBA?
Will she have cooked all the foods?
364
Organization
Future Perfect Tense
Usage 1: It shows an action or situation which will happen
before another action or situation in the future.
1. First action: future perfect tense

2. Second action: simple present tense
Structure: Future perfect tense + when/before/by the time +

simple present tense
365
Organization
Continued
Examples:
I will have become a doctor when you start medical.
They will not have eaten lunch before their father comes home.
Noman will have sold his house by the time he goes to Canada.
366
Organization
Adverbs of Certainty
• Adverbs of certainty express how sure you feel about something.
• They are (certainly, definitely, probably, undoubtedly, surely).
Examples:
He definitely called me last night.
They will probably win the final match.
367
Organization
Positions of Adverbs of Certainty
1. Before main verb
Example:
She surely deserves this position.
2. After to be verb
Example:
Noman is probably at home.
368
Organization
Continued
3. After modal auxiliary verb
Example:
They should definitely leave this place.
4. Sometimes at the beginning of sentence

Example:
Undoubtedly, Amir Khan is the best actor.
369
Organization
Adverbs of Degree
• Adverbs of degree are used to make the meaning of an adjective
or adverb stronger.
• They are (very, too, so, quite, pretty, fairly, really).
Examples:
Najia is very beautiful.
The weather is too cold.
The situation is quite tough.
They are pretty intelligent.
Saleem plays cricket fairly well. 370
Organization
Adverbs of Place
• Adverbs of place are used to show where something happens.
• There are two common adverbs of place (here/there).
Examples:
My friend came here yesterday.
I will meet you there.
His uncle works at Azizi Bank.
They sell fresh fruits in Khair Khana.
371
Organization
Adverbs of Time
• Adverbs of time are used to show when something happens.
• They are (tomorrow, today, yesterday, last week, last month, last
year, next week, next month, next year etc).
Examples:
They bought a new car yesterday.
We will start our own business next year.
372
Organization
Preposition
• Preposition is used to show the relationship of a noun or a
pronoun with rest of the words in a sentence.
Examples:
She comes by bus.
We are fighting with our enemies.
They teach English to me.
373
Organization
Continued
• Preposition is used before the following things:
1. Noun: We are talking about politics.

2. Pronoun: I will send a gift to him.
3. Gerund: He is interested in learning English.
4. Infinitive: They have no choice except to obey him.
5. Noun Clause: I am sick of what you are saying.
374
Organization
Kinds of Preposition
1. Simple Preposition
2. Double Preposition
3. Participle Preposition
4. Phrase Preposition
375
Organization
Simple Preposition
• Simple preposition is made of one word.
• It can be one or two syllables.
• One syllable: in, on, at, from, with, by, for, of etc.
• Two syllables: between, among, despite, above, before, after,
under, behind, until etc.
Examples:
Amir Khan is standing among his fans.
We are from Afghanistan.
376
Organization
Double Preposition
• Double preposition is made of two words and the second word is
a simple preposition.
• They are (because of, due to, next to, according to, across from,
instead of etc).
Examples:
Your class is off tomorrow due to Independence Day.
I am sitting next to my close friend.
377
Organization
Participle Preposition
• Participle preposition is made of present participle form of verb.
• They are (notwithstanding, concerning, considering, including,
excluding, following etc).
Examples:
I will tell you concerning exam tomorrow.
There will be refreshments following the meeting.
378
Organization
Phrase Preposition
• Phrase preposition is made of three or four words.
• They are (in the name of, by the grace of, in the light of, in front
of, in the middle of, at the corner of, in the presence of, in the
absence of etc).
Examples:
I got the highest marks in the class by the grace of Allah.
You should never say anything bad in the absence of someone.
379
Organization
Subject and Verb

Agreement
380
Organization
Subject and Verb Agreement
• It is also called subject and verb concord.
• The verb must agree with its subject in person and number.
• It is only the subject that can determine the singularity and
plurality of the verb.
• In a sentence, the subject affects the verb not anything else.
381
Organization
Rules for Subject and Verb Agreement
Rule 1: Singular subject always requires singular verb. Plural subject
always requires plural verb.
Examples:
The boy plays cricket.
The boys play cricket.
382
Organization
Continued
Rule 2: Singular or plural gerund and infinitive phrases are followed
by singular verbs.
Examples:
Playing cricket is fun.
Respecting elders is our prime duty.
To write an essay is difficult.
To write books needs more knowledge. 383
Organization
Continued
Rule 3: Two gerunds and two infinitives combined by the conjunction
expressing different ideas take a plural verb.
Examples:
To teach five classes and to study in university aren’t easy for a person.
Going to class and not studying anything seem useless to me.
384
Organization
Continued
Rule 4: Distributive pronouns are followed by plural noun and singular
verb.
Examples:
One of my friends is coming tonight.
None of my students is studying hard.
Either of those girls is allowed to attend my class.
Each one of his friends cheats him. 385
Organization
Continued
Rule 5: Distributive adjectives are followed by singular noun and
singular verb.
Examples:
Each girl has the right to get education.
Every teacher teaches well.
Neither boy is coming on time.
Either girl is well-dressed. 386
Organization
Continued
Rule 6: Two nouns combined by (and) generally take a plural verb
expressing different ideas and referring to different persons.
Examples:
Ali and Mahmood live next to our house.
My friends and I are planning to go to Kabul.
387
Organization
Continued
Rule 7: Two nouns combined by (and) referring to the same person and
expressing similar idea take a singular verb.
Examples:
Ali and best friend is getting married soon.
My uncle and principal teaches our class.
388
Organization
Continued
Rule 8: Indefinite pronouns are always followed by singular verb.
Examples:
Someone is knocking the door.
Anyone who comes late is not allowed.
Something is better than nothing.
389
Organization
Continued
Rule 9: Police and people are plural nouns and they are followed by
plural verbs.
Examples:
Police fear people.
People are in search of food.
390
Organization
Continued
Rule 10: Collective Nouns can be followed by either singular or plural
verb with difference in meaning.
• Collective noun + singular verb means the group is working as a unit.
• Collective noun + plural verb means the group members are working
individually.
Examples:
Afghanistan team tries a lot to win.
Afghanistan team try a lot to win.
391
Organization
Continued
Rule 11: The expression of time, money and distance are always
followed by singular verb.
Examples:
Two hours is suitable time to study for that exam.
4000 km is far distance to run.
Thirty dollars seems less to me for this work.
392

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Cambridge International Organization

• Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun to

My students are hardworking.

• A subject pronoun is used instead of a subject

1. First Person Pronouns: I/We

They do not want peace.

Second Person Pronoun + Third Person Pronoun +

• Object pronoun is used instead of object in a

Javed always helps me.

1. I teach Ahmad every day.

• Possessive pronouns are used to show

Simple Present Tense

Universal Fact: It is not changeable.

General Fact: It is changeable.

Usage 4: It is used with (when, if, until, as soon as,

When Naveed comes, I will let you know.

Usage 5: It is used with adverbs of frequency to show

Adverbs of frequency (always, usually, often, sometimes,

They always convince me.

Usage 6: It is used with future time expressions to show

Future time expressions (tomorrow, the day after

Cambridge starts new classes tomorrow.

Present Continuous Tense

Rule 1: Verbs ending in “e” take “d”.

When + Simple Past Tense+ , + Past Continuous Tense

While I was teaching, someone knocked the door.

While it was raining, I was going to school.

I met no one at the party.

• They are used to talk about an indefinite thing.

He found something in the park.

1. All those indefinite pronouns starting with “some” are

Note: Indefinite pronouns starting with “some” can also be

2. All those indefinite pronouns starting with “any” are used

3. All those indefinite pronouns starting with “no” are used

4. All those indefinite pronouns starting with “every” are

Note: Indefinite pronouns are always followed by a singular verb.

• They are also called connective pronouns.

I met Ashraf Ghani, who is the president of Afghanistan.

The students whom Seerat teaches are intelligent.

The watch which she bought is expensive.

The elephant that we saw in the zoo was very big.

1. The man was very old.

Present Perfect Tense

Positive: Subject + have/has + verb3 + complement.

Negative: Subject + have/has + not + verb3 + complement.

Interrogative: Have/Has + subject + verb3 + complement + ?

Present Perfect Continuous

Past Perfect Tense

Past Perfect Continuous

1. Simple Degree of Adjective

Usage 1: It talks about future weak plans.

Usage 1: It is commonly used in British English with “I” and “We” to

Reporting Speech Reported Speech

Main Clause Noun Clause

2. If the statement is negative, the tag question is positive.

When I feel bored, I listen to music.

I bought a mobile which is very expensive.

He who comes late will be punished.

My father passed away, which made us sad.

1. Subject ─ Subject = embedded

The teacher who teaches English is kind.

The treasure which I found is precious.

1. Object ─ Subject = unembedded

They helped a man who was very old. 234