RENEWABLE ENERGY

RESOURCES
 UNIT-I
Principles of Solar Radiation :
Role and potential of new and renewable source, the solar energy option, Environmental impact of solar
power, physics of the sun, the solar constant, extraterrestrial and terrestrial solar radiation, solar radiation on
titled surface, instruments for measuring solar radiation and sun shine, solar radiation data
UNIT- II
Solar Energy Collection and Storage and Applications :
• Solar Energy Collection: Flat plate and concentrating collectors, classification of concentrating collectors, orientation
and thermal analysis, advanced collectors.
• Solar Energy Storage and Applications :Different methods, Sensible, latent heat and stratified storage, solar
ponds. Solar Applications solar heating technique, solar distillation and drying, photovoltaic energy
conversion
UNIT- III
Wind Energy & Bio-Mass :
• Wind Energy : Sources and potentials, horizontal and vertical axis windmills, performance characteristics, Betz criteria
• Bio-Mass : Principles of Bio-Conversion, Anaerobic/aerobic digestion, types of Bio-gas digesters, gas yield,
combustion characteristics of bio-gas, utilization for cooking, I.C. Engine operation and economic aspects
UNIT- IV
Geothermal Energy & Ocean Energy:
• Geothermal Energy : Resources, types of wells, methods of harnessing the energy, potential in India.
• Ocean Energy : (Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion)OTEC, Principles utilization, setting of OTEC plants,
thermodynamic cycles. Tidal and wave energy: Potential and conversion techniques, mini-hydel power plants, and their
economics
UNIT-V
Direct Energy Conversion:
• Direct Energy Conversion: Need for DEC, Carnot cycle, limitations, principles of DEC. Thermo-electric generators,
Seebeck, Peltier and JouIe Thomson effects, Figure of merit, materials, applications, (Mageneto Hydrodynamic)MHD
generators, principles, dissociation and ionization, hall effect, magnetic flux, MHD accelerator, MHD Engine, power
 What is Renewable Energy Sources
• Renewable means Inexhaustible or Sustainable or endless
• These cannot be exhausted easily, can be generated constantly so
can be used again and again,
• renewable energy are periodic and never constant, rendering them
quite unreliable.
• solar energy,
• wind energy,
• tidal energy,
• biomass energy and
• geothermal energy etc.
• The energy obtained from non-conventional sources is known as
non-conventional energy.
Energy is classified into two major sets,

1. Conventional Energy Sources

2. Non-conventional Energy Sources

1. Conventional Energy Sources:
• Conventional energy sources are fully established
and are mainly non-renewable.
• Convention energy mainly comes from fossil fuels
such as oil, natural gases and coal.
• They occur naturally under the earth's surface in the
form of crude oil, which is extracted, purified and
distilled to separate it into various petroleum
products.
Advantages of Conventional Energy Sources:
• Required low cost Equipment
• These Sources readily available
• Gas stations are easily accessible in developed
countries.
Disadvantages of Conventional Energy Sources:
• Depletion of fossil fuels
• Environmental Hazards
• Health Hazards
• Life cycle costs versus running costs
2. Non-Conventional Energy Sources:
Non-conventional sources of energy on the other hand
include mostly renewable sources
Ex: solar energy, wind Energy, Biomass, ocean Energy,
Intensive Agricultural & Hydro electric plants, Wave, Tidal
& Hybrid etc.
Advantages of Non-Conventional Energy Sources:
• Non-Conventional Energy sources are environmentally friendly.

• Pollution free.

• These sources of energy are also renewable, meaning that utilizing

them does not lead to any depletion.

Disadvantages of Non-Conventional Energy Sources:

• Most sources or renewable energy are periodic and never

constant, rendering them quite unreliable.

Ex: wind energy that is undependable because the wind is

not always blowing or sometimes not strong enough to drive the
generators.
• Installation Cost is High.

• High maintaining the wind farms.

 Difference between Conventional & Non –
Conventional Energy Sources
Conventional Sources:
1. The conventional sources are nothing but commercial sources, which are
obtained in a limited quantity.
Ex: Coal, Oil, Uranium etc.
2. These may be exhausted at one time and then won’t be available. Thus
named as non-renewable sources.

3. The per unit cost of this energy is higher. Because of fuel cost.
4. The sources are lead to the cause at pollution.
5. It requires regular maintenance
6. Its energy yield ratio is very high.
7. It Produces energy in a short period of time.
8. Energy production can be done at any time.
Non-Conventional Sources:
1. The Non conventional sources are not commercial sources, which are
available naturally in large amounts.
Ex: Solar, wind, ocean etc.
2. If these sources are exhausted and again come into existence depends
upon their seasons. Thus named as renewable sources.

3. The per unit cost of this energy is lower. Because of no fuel cost.
4. The sources are pollution less energy sources.
5. It does not requires regular maintenance.
6. Its energy yield ratio is very low.
7. It requires much time to produce an amount of energy.
8. Energy production can be done at some particular time.
 The energy sources available can be divided into three types:
1. Primary Energy Sources
2. Secondary Fuels
3. Supplementary Sources

• Primary Energy Sources:

Defined as sources which provide net supply of energy.

Ex: Coal, Oil, Uranium etc

Their Yield ratio is very High. The yield ratio is defined

as : The energy fed back by the material to the energy received
from environment.
• Secondary fuels: These fuels produces no net energy
Ex: Intensive agriculture, solar, wind, water energy

The yield energy is less than the input. But which are
necessary for the economy.

• Supplementary sources: Defined as those whose net yield energy

is zero and requires highest investment in terms of energy.

Ex: Insulation (thermal or heat energy)

World Primary energy consumption by
fuel in 2020
Largest Primary energy Producer in the world
Role and Potential of renewable and Non renewable sources:

Coal
 The major portion of the coal available in India is of low quality, high
ash content and low calorific value.

 The first major technology for the coal gasification, carbonization and
combustion is fluidized bed Technology.

 Fluidized bed Combustion Technology for clean power generation,

Carbon free energy and pollution free power.

Improved efficiencies in the range of 5-15%.

75% Energy Comes from Fossil fuels such as Coal, Oil, Uranium etc.,
 Oil
1. Oils have been used to produce electricity.
2. On the atomization and combustion of petroleum improves
energy efficiency.
3. Improved efficiencies in the range of 5-15%.
4. Oil burner design have been improved in terms of primary
air, secondary air mixing and combustion.
5. Another development in this area is that the liquid is better
atomized at low/below nozzle pressures if a high voltage of
the order of 20 kV, dc is applied to the nozzle.
6. This technique generates very fine droplets at high surface
area.
7. 75% Energy Comes from Fossil fuels such as Coal, Oil,
Uranium etc.,
 Gas
1. Gas have been used to produce electricity.
2. It is become economical to run long distance pipe lines
for the gas to be transported several hundred kilometers
to the place where it can be used.
3. This can be very significant improvement.
4. Natural gas is very profitable employed for a raw
material to produce several important chemicals which
have been traditionally obtained from petroleum
fractions.
SOLAR ENERGY:
1. Solar Energy is Major source of Power.
2. Its potential is 178 billion MW which is about 20,000 times the
worlds demand.
3. Sun energy can be utilized as thermal & Photovoltaic.
4. Currently being used for steam and hot water production.
WIND ENERGY:
1. California state of USA is generating 500 MW from 900 Wind mills.
2. 0.7 million wind pumps are in operation in different countries.
3. A minimum wind speed of 3 m/s is needed. This is considered to
have high efficiency.
4. In India estimated 20,000 and 25,000 MW.
5. The Maximum generated from any single unit is 1MW.
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY:
1. 3400 MW exists in New Zealand, USA,JAPAN and ICELAND.
2. 700 MW power is generated in Philippines and China.
3. India does not appear to have any major exploit able source.
4. This energy also used for cooling by using heat for vapour
absorption system.
 PHYSICS OF THE SUN
Solar physics. Solar physics is the branch of astrophysics that specializes in the study of the Sun. It deals with detailed measurements

 The sun is a large spherical of very hot

gases, the heat being generated by various
kinds of fusion reactions.
 Diameter of sun is 1.39 * 106 km i.e 109
times of earths diameter (1.27 * 104 km).
 The mean distance between earth and sun is
1.50 * 108 km.
 Its mass (about 2×1030 kilograms,
330,000 times that of Earth) accounts for
about 99.86% of the total mass of the Solar
System.
 Due do large distance, the sun subtends an
angle of only 32 minutes at the earth
surface.
 Principles of Solar Radiation
 The energy emitted by the sun is known as
solar radiation
 Solar radiation, often called the solar resource
or just sunlight, is a general term for the
electromagnetic radiation emitted by the sun.
Solar radiation can be captured and turned
into useful forms of energy, such as heat and
electricity, using a variety of technologies.

 Solar radiation includes visible light,

ultraviolet light, infrared, radio waves, X-
rays, and gamma rays.

 Solar radiation received outside the earth

atmosphere is different than what we receive
on the earth because of absorption, reflection,
scattering in the atmosphere.

 The solar radiation grouped in to the two

categories.
1. Extraterrestrial Solar Radiation
 Terrestrial Solar radiation
The energy emitted by the sun is known as solar radiation. The incoming solar radiation
to the earth is known as insolation. … Radiation from the earth is called terrestrial
radiation.
 Terrestrial Solar Radiation:
 The radiation we receive on the earth surface is called the terrestrial
radiation.
 The maximum value of terrestrial radiation on horizontal earth
surface is 1000 W/m2 , because
 Terrestrial solar radiation divided in to
1. Direct or Beam Radiation
2. Diffuse Radiation
3. Global Radiation.
1. Direct or Beam Radiation:
The radiation received on the earth surface directly without
change in direction and does not get absorbed, reflected and
scattered while passing through atmosphere
2. Diffuse Radiation:
The solar radiation received from the sun after its direction has been changed by reflection and
scattering by the atmosphere. Diffuse radiation comes to the earth from all parts of the sky

3. Total or Global Radiation:

The sum of beam and diffuse radiation intercepted at the surface of the earth per unit area of
location is called the total radiation or insolation.
The total radiation is referred to global radiation with its maximum value is 1000 W/m 2 .

Solar energy reaches the top of the

earth atmosphere consists of about
1. 8% of ultraviolet radiation
(short wave length, less than 0.39
μm)
2. 46% of Visible Light (0.39 μm to
0.78 μm)
3. 46% of infrared radiation (long
wave length more than 0.78 μm)
 Extraterrestrial Solar Radiation:
 The intensity of the sun’s radiation outside the earth atmosphere is
called extraterrestrial solar radiation.
 The radiations are measured as an earth sun distance on a surface of
earth. The energy flux (irradiance) is called solar constant.
 On average the extraterrestrial irradiance is 1367 (W/m2)
 Solar Constant:
The rate at which solar Energy arrives at the top of the atmosphere
is called solar constant Isc.

Solar constant is the amount of energy received in unit time

on a unit area perpendicular to the sun’s direction at the mean
distance of the earth from the sun.
 Extraterrestrial solar radiation deviates from solar constant value due
to two reasons.
1. The variation in the radiation emitted by the sun itself.
Then the solar constant values vary up to about + 1.5
with different periodicities.
2. The variation of earth-sun distance.
Then the solar constant values vary up to about + 3 in either
directions.
 For practical purpose, NASA standard values for the solar constant
expressed in three common units.
1. 1.353 kw/m2 or 1353 W/m2 .
2. 116.5 langleys (calories/cm2) per hour or 1165 kcal/m2 per hour (1
langleys is equal to 1 cal/cm2)
3. 429.2 Btu per squ.ft. per hour.
 The earth is closest to the sun in the summer and farthest away in the
winter. This variation in distance produces a nearly sinusoidal
variation in the intensity of solar radiation I that reaches the earth.
 The intensity of solar radiation can be approximated by the equation.

I/Isc = 1+ 0.033 (cos (360 (n-2)/365)

= 1+ 0.033 (cos (360*n)/365)

Solar radiation received at the surface of the earth entirely
different due to the various reasons.

1. Part of the radiation reflected back into the space,

especially by clouds.
2. The radiation entering the atmosphere is partly absorbed
by molecules in the air.
3. Oxygen and Ozone (03) absorb nearly all the UV radiation
below 0.29 micrometer.
4. Water vapour and carbon dioxide absorb some of the
energy in the infrared range.
5. Part of the solar radiation is scattered (its direction has
been changed) by droplets in clouds by atmospheric
molecules and dust particles
6. Hence for terrestrial application of solar energy, only
wavelengths between 0.29 and 2.5 micrometer to be
consider.
 The distribution pattern of Extraterrestrial and Terrestrial solar
radiation as shown in figure below.
 SOLAR RADIATION AND ITS MEASUREMENTS

Introduction:
Solar Energy received in the form of radiation, can converted directly or
indirectly into other forms of energy such as heat & electricity.

Actinometer : It is an instrument used to measure heating power

of radiation, There are various types of actinometers which are
Pyrheliometer and Pyranometer

Solar radiation data are measured mainly by the following

instruments:
1. PYRANOMETER
2. PYRHELIOMETER
3. SUNSHINE RECORDER
 PYRHELIOMETER
• A pyrheliometer is an instrument that measures direct Beam
radiation by using a long and narrow tube to collect only beam
radiation from the sun at normal incidence
• It is used with a solar tracking system to keep the instrument
aimed at the sun
• A pyrheliometer is often used in the same setup with a
pyranometer
.
• The external structure of
the Pyrheliometer instrument looks
like a telescope because it is a
lengthy tube. By using this tube, we
can spot the lens toward the sun
to calculate the radiance

• A pyrheliometer is an instrument for

measurement of direct beam solar
irradiance. Sunlight enters the
instrument through a window and is
directed onto a thermopile which
converts heat to an electrical signal
that can be recorded.
Pyrheliometer Construction:
Acceptance angle : to measure the solar
radiation we will set the Pyrheliometer at
specific angle that is acceptance angle
should be 0 to 5degrees
Long collimator tube:
In this tube we will set the solar radiation which
is lengthy tube.
Alignment indicator:
This will be used for setting the angle. It will
align the instrument.
Black absorber plate:
When the rays will come inside the tube there
will be black plate which will absorb the
radiation.
Thermopile junction:
Thermopile junction is located below the black
absorber plate which will be used to measure
the emf. It will measures the heat from the black
body which is recorded for the system.
Pivot for 2-axis rotation: Change the direction
of instruments according to the direct radiation
Working of Pyrheliometer:
It converts sun’s energy into an electric signal that can be easily measured.
The tube is sealed with dry air to eliminate absorption of beam radiation within the
tube by water vapour
The sunlight will enter in the long collimator tube and will incident on black absorber
plate. The thermopile is in contact with black absorber plate when the black plat will
absorb the heat the emf (It converts sun’s energy into an electric signal that can be
easily measured.) will be generated between the hot and colder surface due to the
temperature difference. This emf will be used to measure the value of beam
radiation.
• Applications:
• 1. Scientific meteorological
and climate observations
• 2.Material testing research
• 3. Assessment of the
efficiency of solar
collectors and photovoltaic
devices.
 Three pyrheliometers are widely used:
1. The Angstrom Compensation Pyrheliometer
2. The Abbot Silver Disc Pyrheliometer
3. Eppley Pyrheliometer
1. The Angstrom Compensation Pyrheliometer:
• Angstrom pyrheliometer consists of two identical strips S1 and S2 of area A. One
junction of a thermocouple is connected to S1 and the other junction is connected
to S2. A sensitive galvanometer is connected to the thermo couple.
• Strip S2 is connected to an external electrical circuit as shown in Fig.. When both
the strips S1 and S2 are shielded from the solar radiation, galvanometer shows no
deflection as both the junctions are at the same temperature. Now strip S1 is
exposed to the solar radiation and S2 is shielded with a cover M. As strip S1
receives heat radiations from the sun, its temperature rises and hence the
galvanometer shows deflection. Now current is allowed to pass through the strip
S2 and it is adjusted so that galvanometer shows no deflection. Now, the strips
S1 and S2 are again at the same temperature.
If the quantity of heat radiation that is
incident on unit area in unit time on strip
S1 is Q and a its absorption co-efficient, then
the amount of heat radiations absorbed by
the strip S1 in unit time is Q A a.
Also, heat produced in unit time in the strip
S2 is given by VI, where V is the potential
difference and I is the current flowing
through it.
As heat absorbed = heat produced
Q A a = VI (or)
Q=VI/Aa
The Abbot silver disc pyrheliometer,
The Abbot silver disc pyrheliometer, first built by Abbot in 1902 and
modified in 1909 and 1927
3. Eppley Pyrheliometer:
 PYRANOMETER
• The name pyranometer has a Greek origin, “pyr” means
‘fire’, and “ano” means ‘above sky
• In 1893 Swedish scientists Anderson &Anderknutsson
• A type of actinometer used to measure broadband solar
irradiance on a planar surface
• It is a sensor that is designed measure the solar radiation
flux density (in Watts per meter square) from a field of
view of 180 degrees.
• Pyranometers have a spectral sensitivity that is as ‘flat’ as
possible
 Pyranometer:
 Definition: A type of actinometer used to measure irradiance of solar energy within
the preferred location as well as flux density of solar radiation. The range of solar
radiation extends between 300 & 2800 nm.
A Pyranometer is designed to measure global radiation, usually on a horizontal
surface but can also be used on an inclined surface. When shaded from beam
radiation by using a shading ring, a pyranometer measures diffuse radiation.
 The main parts of the pyranometer is
1. Black surface; 2. Glass domer, 3. Guard plate; 4. Three levelling screws;
5. Mounting plate; 6. Grouted bolts; 7. Platform; 8. Thermopile.

Thermopile has two junctions. They are : (a) Cold junction and (b) Hot junction.

 A black surface on the guard plate is covered by a transparent glass domes.

 The hot junctions of the thermopile is connected to black Surface and the cold
junctions of thermopiles connected where there is no solar radiation.

The other ends of thermopile are connected to millivoltmeter. It records an emf

(electro motive force) generated.

When the sunrays falling on the black surface, heat is generated inside the glass
dome. This causes the temperature difference takes place in the two junctions of the
thermopile. As a result, an e.m.f is generated and it is recorded in the milli voltmeter.
Black coating on the thermopile sensor:
1. Absorbs solar radiaton, which is converted to heat
2. The heat flows through the sensor to the pyranometer housing
3. The thermopile sensor generates a voltage output signal that is proportional to the
solar radiation

Applications: 1. Meteorology: They can be seen in many meteorological stations-

typically installed horizontally and next to solar panels – typically mounted with the
sensor surface in the plane of the panel
2. Climatology
3. Solar Energy Studies
4. Building Physics
 SUNSHINE RECORDER
• Sunshine recorder measures the sunshine hours in a day
• A sunshine recorder is a device that records the amount
of sunshine at a given location
• The result provide information about the weather and
climate of a geographical area
• This information is useful in meteorology, science,
agriculture, tourism, and other fields
• There are Two basic types of sunshine recorders
• 1. One type uses the sun itself as a times scale for the
sunshine readings
• 2. The other type uses some form of clock for the time
scale
• Older recorders required a human observer to interpret
the results, recorded results might differ among
observers. Modern sunshine recorders use electronics and
computers for precise data that do not depend on a
human interpreter. Newer recorders can also measure the
global and diffuse radiation
Sunshine recorder
Sunshine Recorder:
 The Instrument measures the duration
of bright sunshine in a day.
 It consists of a glass sphere mounted on its
axis parallel to that of the earth, within a
spherical section (bowl)
 The sun rays are focused by a glass spherical
bowl mounted concentrically with the sphere.
 On a spherical bowl a special paper
arrangements with time scale.
 Due to the bright sunshine burns a path along
this paper.
 Through the day the sun moves across the sky,
the image moves across the strip.
 Thus a burnt space whose length is
proportional to the duration of sun shine is
obtained on the strip.
Solar radiation Geometry
 LATTITUDE
• Latitude is taken as positive for any location towards the north and
negative towards south.
•The latitude at equator is 00 while at north and south poles are +900 and -
900 respectively.

Longitude:
Longitude is the angular distance measured from west of east of to an
observer point on the earth’s surface which passes through the prime meridian
(Greenwich, England).
(or)
The angle between meridian of the observer and Greenwich is called
Longitude.
Longitude is positive towards the west.
Longitude is negative towards the east.

Ex: Delhi located at 77.20 E of longitude.

Declination Angle (δ) :
• The angle between the line joining sun and centre of earth and its projection on
the equatorial plane is called declination angle.

• The solar declination angle varies with the season of the year, and ranges between
–23.45º and +23.45º
Hour Angle:
• The angular distance that the earth has rotated in a day to bring the
meridian of the sun inline with meridian of the observer on an equatorial
plane.
Altitude Angle(H) :
• The solar altitude is the vertical angle between
the sun rays and a horizontal surface.

Zenith Angle(Z):
The angle made by the sun rays from
vertical line passing through the observer is called
Zenith angle.
 Incidence Angle is the angle between the direction of direct radiation and a line
exactly perpendicular to the array angle
 Tilt angle is the vertical angle between the horizontal and the array surface
 Array Azimuth Angle is the horizontal angle between a reference direction –
typically south- and the direction an array surface faces