INTRODUCTION TO

SHIPHANDLING

I. Forces
II. Terminology
III. Standard Commands
 FORCES
• To understand shiphandling, we must first
look at all the forces that affect a ship.
Controllable:
•Engines Uncontrollable:
•Rudder •Wind
•Lines •Current
•Anchor
•Shallow water effects
•Tugs
•Auxiliary Propulsion
 ENGINES

• Power train: power source turns a shaft

(through reduction gears), which turns a
propeller
• Propellers may be fixed or controllable
pitch:
– Fixed: Ship speed is controlled by shaft rpm
only
– CRP: Ship speed is controlled by both shaft
rpm and propeller blade pitch
 Propeller Thrust

Resulting Thrust

Low Pressure
Water Flow
Propeller
Blade
High Pressure
Rotation of
propeller blade
 ENGINES

• Almost all Navy ships have one of three

propulsion plants:
– Gas turbine (requires CRP): most surface
combatants
– Diesel: Large auxiliaries, minesweepers
– Steam (Conventional or Nuclear): Older ships,
aircraft carriers, submarines
 Controllable Pitch Propellers

• Found on all gas turbine ships and some

diesel amphibs

• 0 - 12 kts
– shaft rotates at 55 RPM
– thrust (speed) controlled by changing the pitch
of the propeller blade
 Controllable Pitch Propellers

• >12 kts
– thrust controlled by changing the speed (RPM)
of the shaft.

• The shaft always spins in same direction

whether going forward or backward.
 Fixed Pitch Propellers

• Found on steam ships (carriers, subs,

amphibs)
• Cannot change pitch of propeller

• Thrust (speed) controlled by changing

speed of the shaft
• To go backwards, must stop the shaft and
spin it in the opposite direction.
 SIDE FORCE

• In addition to fore and aft thrust, propeller

rotation also causes what is known as “side
force”:
– Side force is a lateral force caused by propeller
rotation.
– The direction of the force is the direction in
which the propeller would “walk” along the
bottom due to its rotation.
 SIDE FORCE

Standard propeller rotation for single and twin screw

ships (ahead operation)
SIDE FORCE
 AUXILIARY PROPULSION

• Bow thruster
– Hull-mounted, transverse propeller used to
develop lateral thrust when pierside
– Normally found on larger ships
• Auxiliary Propulsion Unit (APU)
– Retractable, omni-directional propulsion unit
– Emergency propulsion for single-screw ships
– Can be used for pierside maneuvering
 RUDDERS

• Configuration: normally one rudder for

each propeller, mounted directly astern of
the propeller.
• Range of motion: 35° left or right of CL
– Hard rudder: 35°
– Full rudder: 30°
– Standard rudder: 15°
 RUDDERS

• Rudder effectiveness is dependent on flow

velocity over the rudder surface.
– “Bare steerageway” is the minimum speed at
which a rudder is still effective. This is
generally 2 to 3 knots for most ships.
• Rudder angles must be reversed for astern
operation
 Rudder
Water
• Acts a wing Flow

High
Low Pressure Area High
Low Pressure Area

Rudder Rudder
Force Force
 Propellers / Rudders

• Primary means of controlling the stern

Thrust

Side Force

Rudder Force
 MOORING LINES
• Lines are used next to a pier to control ship
positioning.
• General terms:
– Breast line: limits lateral motion
– Spring line: limits fore/aft motion
• Each line has a specific name, indicating
location, direction, and purpose
• Lines are numbered, fore to aft, based on
location on the ship.
 MOORING LINES

1 - Bow line
2 - After bow spring line
3 - Forward bow spring line
(No number) - Breast line
4 - After quarter spring line
5 - Forward quarter spring line
6 - Stern line
 Standard Line Commands

• Stand by your lines

• Take up the slack on line x
• Take a strain on line x
• Slack line y
• Ease line z
• Take line w to the capstan / to power
 Line Commands

• Heave around • Over all lines

• Avast heaving • Let go / let go all
• Hold lines
• Check • Cast off line y
• Double up • Surge
• Single up
• Take in
Deck and Pier Fittings
 Anchors

• Most common anchor

– Standard Navy Stockless

• Most ships have two

– Deep water anchor - 14 shots of chain
– Normal anchor - 12 shots of chain

• Shot - 15 fathoms – 6 ft/fathom (90 feet)

Scope of Chain
15 fathoms

30 fathoms

45 fathoms

60 fathoms
Scope of Chain

Next to Last Shot

Last Shot
 TUGS
• Used to assist ships in pierside maneuvers
• Three ship-to-tug tie-ups are used:
– Single headline
– Double headline
– Power
 Single Headline

• Simplest Tie-up

• Best to allow tug to

push or pull in one
direction only

• Not good if complex

tug maneuvers
required.
 Double Headline

• Not as simple to make

up

• Allows the tug to push

or pull and perform
complex tug
maneuvers
 Power

• Most versatile tie-up

• Good for general purpose

use

• Holds tug securely to ship

—tug can use
rudder/engines in any
direction without moving
itself
 Uncontrollable Forces

• Wind
• Currents / Tides
• Seas
• Depth of Water
 Wind

• Acts on the sail area of the ship

– Exposed superstructure
– Hull structure

• Ships tend to back into the wind

• 30kts of wind = 1kts of current

 Currents / Tides / Seas

• Acts on the underwater part of the ship.

• Navigator continuously computes set and

drift.
 Depth of Water

• Increased resistance: In relatively shallow

water at high speeds, pressure drag on the
hull is significantly increased, resulting in
actual speed less than ordered speed.
• Squatting: The ship’s bow wave is
increased, resulting in a lifting of the bow
and sinking of the stern.
 SHIP TERMINOLOGY

• Bow • Superstructure •Shaft

• Stem • Pilothouse •Propeller
• Forecastle • Mast •Rudder
• Hawse pipe • Yardarm •Stern
• Weather decks • Truck •Transom
• Draft • Stack •Waterline
• Freeboard • Keel
 Pivot Point

• Imaginary point on the ship’s centerline

about which the ship pivots

Pivot Point
Thrust
Side Force
Rudder Force
 Pivot Point

• Usually located 1/3 the length of the ship

from the bow. (Just behind the bridge.)

• Pivot point is not fixed

 Things that affect
location of the Pivot Point

• Headway or Sternway
• Ship’s Speed
• Anchors
• Mooring Lines
• Tugs
 Shiphandling Terms

• Advance
– Distance gained toward the direction of the original
course after the rudder is put over.
• Transfer
– Distance gained perpendicular to the original course
after the rudder is put over.
• Turning Circle
– Path followed by the ship’s pivot point in a constant
turn
Advance & Transfer 90° Turn

Advance
Transfer

Kick
Advance & Transfer 180° Turn

Transfer

Kick Advance
Advance & Transfer 360° Turn

Transfer

Advance

Kick
 Turning Circle

Kick
Final Diameter
Tactical Diameter
 SHIPHANDLING TERMS
• Tactical Diameter - Perpendicular distance
between the path of the ship on original
course and final course after a 180° turn
• Standard Tactical Diameter - Tactical
diameter prescribed by current tactical
orders for formation maneuvers
• Reduced Tactical Diameter - Diameter
obtained at full rudder using standard speed
 SHIPHANDLING TERMS

• Final Diameter - Diameter of the ship’s

turning circle
• Kick - Momentary movement, at the start of
a turn, of the ship’s stern toward the side
opposite the direction of the turn
• Surge - Distance gained/lost during a speed
increase or decrease
 SHIPHANDLING
CHARACTERISTICS
STANDARD
COMMANDS
 STANDARD COMMANDS

• To avoid any possible confusion between

the Conning Officer and the Helm or Lee
Helm, all steering and engine orders are
given using standard phraseology and
format.
• Remember to ALWAYS LOOK before you
turn a ship!
 BASIC FORMAT
CONNING OFFICER HELM/LEE HELM

Command
Reply

Report

Acknowledgement
 COMMANDS TO THE HELM
Format Example

-Direction "Right. . ."

"Left. . ."
-Amount ". . standard rudder. . ."
". . .ten degrees rudder. . ."

-Course ". . .steady course two zero zero."

". . .steady on course one one five."
 COMMANDS TO THE HELM
Examples of a standard command to the helm:

Right 5 degrees rudder, steady course 090

Left full rudder, steady on course 000
 COMMANDS TO THE HELM
When the Conning Officer gives a standard
command, he/she should NOT preface the
command by saying “HELM…” It is
understood that if the Conning Officer
gives a rudder command, it is meant for the
Helmsman only and no one else.
 COMMANDS TO THE HELM
The helmsman will repeat verbatim the entire
command that the Conning Officer ordered. This
accomplishes two things:

1. It provides feedback to the Conning Officer

that the Helmsman heard the command given.

2. It ensures that the Helmsman understood

the Conning Officer’s command.
 If any confusion exists when
conning officer gives a command:
The helm or lee helm will give the
following response:

“Orders to the helm” or

“Orders to the lee helm”
 COMMANDS TO THE HELM
The first part of the verbal exchange of a standard
command between the Conning Officer and the Helm:
Command – “Right standard rudder, steady course 090”

Reply – “Right standard rudder, steady course 090 aye”

(after the rudder is put over the right amount...)

Report – “Conning Officer, my rudder is right standard,

coming to course 090”
Acknowledgement – “Very Well”
 COMMANDS TO THE HELM
The second part of the verbal exchange of a standard
command from the Conning Officer to the Helm

After the helm actually steadies up on course 090, helm reports

Helm – “Conning Officer, steady on course 090, checking

course 093”

Conning Officer – “Very Well”

Your ship is on course 000 T and the Officer Of
the Deck (OOD) orders you as the Conning
Officer to change course to 045 T. What
command to do give to the helmsman?
Choose from the following below:

a. Come right ten degrees rudder, steady course zero four five
b. Right ten degrees rudder, steer course zero four five
c. Come right ten degrees rudder, steer course zero four five
d. Right ten degrees rudder, steady course zero four five
 COMMANDS TO THE HELM
Desired action - Course change is less than 10 degrees:

Standard command: COME LEFT/RIGHT, STEER COURSE _____

EXAMPLE: a course change from 270 degrees T to 274 degrees T

Command - Come Right, Steer Course 274

Reply - Come Right, Steer Course 274 aye sir/ma’am
Report - Steady Course 274, checking course ___

Acknowledgement - Very Well

 The OOD orders a course
045 change from 045 T to 050 T.
050
What standard command can
you give to the helmsman?

Your choices are:

a. Come left, steady course zero five zero.

b. Come right, steady course zero five zero.
c. Come right, steer course zero five zero.
d. Right five degrees rudder, steer course zero five zero.
Remember when you give a rudder amount as in the following
example, you must steady on a course vice steer a course.

Example: Right five degrees rudder,

steady course zero zero zero.
On the other hand, if you want to make a course change of
ten degrees or less, you can give the following command:

Example: Come right, steer course zero zero zero.

It is incorrect to mix these standard commands together.

Here is another example:

What standard command would you give to change

course from 090T to course 105T?

Right _________ rudder, steady course one zero five.

Some possible answers are as follows:
Right five degrees rudder, steady course one zero five.

Right ten degrees rudder, steady course one zero five.

Right standard rudder, steady course one zero five.

 COMMANDS TO THE HELM
When course to steer is not given:
-Helmsman ends report with "No new course
given."

-Helmsman reports passing headings every 10

degrees.
-Conning Officer stops passing heading reports
with: "Belay your headings."
 COMMANDS TO THE HELM
An example of a command where there is no course given.

Command - Right standard rudder

Reply - Right standard rudder, aye

Report - Rudder is right standard, no course given

Acknowledgement - Very Well

 COMMANDS TO THE HELM
The helm will sound off ship’s heading every 10 degrees

“Passing 270” “Passing 280” “Passing 290” etc

The command to stop the helm from making these reports

is:

“Belay your headings”

COMMANDS TO THE HELM
EXCEPTION: HARD RUDDER

-The maximum rudder angle possible

-Amount of rudder given first, then direction.

**Used for emergency situations!**

"Hard right rudder!!" "Hard right rudder!!"

COMMANDS TO THE HELM
More Steering Commands
Desired action - To increase the amount of rudder
Standard command: Increase your rudder to right/left______
Desired action - To decrease the amount of rudder
Standard command: Ease your rudder to right/left______

Please note that when the rudder is increased/eased

while turning to an ordered course, the Conning
Officer must restate the course to steady.
COMMANDS TO THE HELM
More Steering Commands
Desired action - To steer the course on which the ship is
heading at that time.
Standard command: Steady as you go
Desired action - To put on equal and opposite ordered
rudder while in a turn.
Standard command: Shift your rudder
Desired action - To reduce the rudder angle to 0 degrees
Standard command: Rudder amidships
COMMANDS TO THE HELM
More Steering Commands
Desired action - To know the exact heading of the ship at
the moment
Standard command: Mark your head

Desired action - A warning to the helm to steer more

exactly.
Standard command: Mind your helm
 TIPS FOR THE CONNING OFFICER
-After giving a command to the helm:
OVERSEE THE ACTUAL TURN!
-ALWAYS look in the direction you are turning
BEFORE YOU GIVE THE COMMAND!!!
-NEVER use "Belay my last."
-Simply state the correct or new command
 COMMANDS TO THE LEE HELM
Format Example

-Engine Desired "All engines. . ."

-Direction ". . .ahead/back. . ."
-Amount ”one-third. . .full. . ."
-Revolutions/Pitch ". . .indicate pitch and
turns for 22 kts."
 COMMANDS TO THE LEE HELM

When the Conning Officer gives a

standard command, he/she should
NOT preface the command by saying
“LEE HELM……”. It is understood
that if the Conning Officer gives an
engine command, it is meant for the
Lee helmsman only and no one else.
 COMMANDS TO THE LEE HELM
The verbal exchange of a standard command between
the Conning Officer and the Lee helm

Command - All engines ahead full, indicate pitch and turns

for 22 kts
Reply - All engines ahead full, indicate pitch and turns for
22 kts aye sir/ma’am
After the lee helm has the engines in the proper direction & amount...

Report - All engines ahead full, indicating pitch and turns for
22 kts
Acknowledgement - Very Well
 COMMANDS TO THE LEE HELM
What command would you give to the lee helm
to slow down from 22 kts to 10 kts? Knowing
that 10 kts is a two-thirds bells, which answer
would you choose?
a. All engines back 2/3, indicate pitch & turns for 10 kts
b. All engines ahead 2/3, indicate pitch & turns for 10 kts
c. Ease engines to ahead 2/3, indicate pitch & turns for 10 kts
d. Ease engines back 2/3, indicate pitch & turns for 10 kts

Remember this analogy: You don’t slow down in

your car by putting it in reverse.
 MANEUVERING COMBINATIONS

USED WHEN: -GETTING UNDERWAY

-MOORING
-IN RESTRICTED WATERS

HELM RINGS UP "999" RPM

ENGINEERING GIVES PRE-DETERMINED SPEED

RESPONSE TO AHEAD AND BACKING BELLS