ARISTOTLE

Aristotle (384–322 B.C.E.) is one of the most influential

philosophers of all time, with his impact on philosophy
being second only to Plato. His extensive body of work,
potentially numbering up to 200 treatises, covers a wide
range of subjects, including logic, metaphysics,
philosophy of mind, ethics, political theory, aesthetics,
rhetoric, and empirical biology. Approximately 31 of
these treatises have survived and continue to be studied
today. Aristotle's writings have sparked debates, provided
illumination, and stimulated ongoing interest among
scholars across various fields.
ARISTOTLE’S LIFE
Aristotle was born in 384 B.C.E. in Stagira, Macedonia. At seventeen, he
moved to Athens to study at Plato’s Academy, remaining there until Plato’s
death in 347 B.C.E. He then moved to Assos and later Lesbos, continuing his
philosophical and biological research. In 343 B.C.E., Aristotle tutored the
young Alexander the Great at Philip of Macedon's request. Returning to
Athens in 335 B.C.E., he founded the Lyceum, conducting extensive research
across various disciplines. After his wife Pythias died, he formed a
relationship with Herpyllis, with whom he had children. Aristotle left Athens
in 323 B.C.E. due to anti-Macedonian sentiment and died in Chalcis in 322
B.C.E.
THE ARISTOTELIAN CORPUS:
CHARACTER AND PRIMARY DIVISIONS
Aristotle's writings are challenging for beginners due to unexplained
technical terms, complex sentence structures, and sometimes disorganized
treatises. Scholars debate whether these texts were edited posthumously.
Cicero praised Aristotle's prose, suggesting he had access to different works
than those extant today, which seem like lecture notes rather than polished
works. Aristotle's works span theoretical (metaphysics, mathematics,
physics), practical (ethics, politics), and productive (arts, crafts) sciences.
Logic, though not categorized, underpins all sciences, organizing principles
of valid inference. The "Organon" includes Aristotle's logical and
argumentation theories, emphasizing intellectual inquiry tools across
disciplines.
ARISTOTLE’S MOST IMPORTANT
SURVIVING AUTHENTIC WORKS
•Organon
• Categories (Cat.)
• De Interpretatione (DI) [On Interpretation]
• Prior Analytics (APr)
• Posterior Analytics (APo)
• Topics (Top.)
• Sophistical Refutations (SE)
•Theoretical Sciences
• Physics (Phys.)
• Generation and Corruption (Gen. et Corr.)
• De Caelo (DC) [On the Heavens]
• Metaphysics (Met.)
• De Anima (DA) [On the Soul]
• Parva Naturalia (PN) [Brief Natural Treatises]
• History of Animals (HA)
• Parts of Animals (PA)
• Movement of Animals (MA)
• Meteorology (Meteor.)
• Progression of Animals (IA)
• Generation of Animals (GA)
•Practical Sciences
• Nicomachean Ethics (EN)
• Eudemian Ethics (EE)
• Magna Moralia (MM) [Great Ethics]
• Politics (Pol.)
•Productive Science
• Rhetoric (Rhet.)
• Poetics (Poet.)
PHAINOMENA AND THE ENDOXIC
METHOD
Aristotle’s philosophy contrasts with Descartes’ skepticism by trusting our
cognitive faculties. He approaches problems like a modern scientist, starting
with how the world appears (phainomena) and credible opinions (endoxa).
Aristotle philosophized to resolve puzzles (aporiai) that arise from human
wonder about the world. He collected and analyzed these credible opinions,
understanding that some must be reinterpreted or rejected. Despite differing
endoxa, he believed appearances often track truth, guiding philosophical
inquiry. Aristotle’s method is evident in his works, where he starts with
observable phenomena, considers historical perspectives, and tackles puzzles
to advance understanding.
LOGIC
Aristotle achieved the first systematic treatment of correct reasoning
principles, developing a theory of deduction called syllogistic, including
modal syllogistic. He also proved meta-theorems related to these systems.
While earlier philosophers understood validity and soundness, Aristotle
uniquely codified formal and syntactic principles of correct inference. His
logic's core concept, a 'perfect deduction,' ensures validity through argument
structure alone. Aristotle's deductions include intuitive validity, and he
established transformation principles to relate all deductions back to perfect
ones. He proved several meta-theorems ensuring all deductions' validity.
Aristotle's logic, foundational for millennia, was praised by Kant for its
completeness and enduring relevance.
SCIENCE
Aristotle views logic as a tool for human inquiry and explanation, integral but
incomplete for science. Science requires more than deductions; it needs
arguments with necessary premises that reveal the true nature of things.
Aristotle emphasizes demonstrations, deductions with premises that uncover
causal structures and necessities. Science must explain less known facts
through more fundamental, better-known ones, as in the example of why trees
shed leaves. He rejects the idea that all knowledge is demonstrable, arguing
that first principles must be indemonstrable. Aristotle believes knowledge
begins with perception, leading to an understanding of necessary features
through experience and intellectual apprehension.
DIALECTIC
Not all rigorous reasoning is scientific. Aristotle recognizes that much of his
writing doesn't meet the scientific standards set in his "Posterior Analytics."
Often, we reason from widely accepted opinions (endoxa) rather than known
necessary premises. For this, Aristotle proposes dialectic—a method for
deductive reasoning based on endoxa, avoiding contradictions. Dialectic
serves three roles: training, conversational exchange, and philosophical
sciences. In the latter, it helps evaluate endoxa, test their validity, and guide
us toward first principles. Thus, dialectic is crucial in philosophical inquiry,
reflecting Aristotle's confidence in human reason and investigation.
ESSENTIALISM AND HOMONYMY
Aristotle believes we can uncover necessary features of reality through
rational grasping of truths or dialectical investigation using endoxa. He
emphasizes essence-specifying definitions in science, reflecting his deep
commitment to essentialism. Aristotle uses various terms for essence, most
notably "to ti ên einai" (what it was to be). He distinguishes essential
properties from non-essential ones (propria), which follow from essence but
do not define it. Aristotle's essentialism asserts that essential properties are
explanatorily basic. He often contrasts his essentialism with Plato's univocity,
proposing instead a core-dependent homonymy, where concepts like
"healthy" have a primary sense guiding related uses.
CATEGORY THEORY
Aristotle’s theory of categories underpins his philosophy, categorizing basic
kinds of beings. In "The Categories," he identifies ten categories: substance,
quantity, quality, relative, where, when, being in a position, having, acting
upon, and being affected. These categories are seen as both exhaustive and
irreducible. Aristotle’s categories are fundamental to understanding reality,
such as treating time as a dependent quantity. This theory also explains the
core-dependent homonymy of being, where all categories rely on substance.
Despite criticisms, including from Kant, Aristotle uses the categories
throughout his work to provide philosophical guidance across various
domains.
THE FOUR CAUSAL ACCOUNT OF
EXPLANATORY ADEQUACY
Aristotle's four-causal explanatory scheme is central to his philosophy,
emphasizing the necessity and sufficiency of four types of causes: material,
formal, efficient, and final. In his "Physics," Aristotle illustrates this with
examples like a bronze statue, where material cause is the bronze, formal
cause is the shape, efficient cause is the sculptor, and final cause is the
purpose of honoring. While some phenomena lack certain causes (e.g.,
coincidences lacking final causes), most explanations require all four.
Aristotle argues that these causes are essential for true explanatory adequacy,
grounding knowledge in these fundamental explanatory factors.
HYLOMORPHISM
Central to Aristotle’s philosophy is hylomorphism, which posits that ordinary
objects are composites of matter (hulê) and form (eidos or morphê).
Hylomorphism addresses puzzles about change, asserting that all change
involves a persisting element (matter) and a gained or lost element (form).
For example, when bronze becomes a statue, the bronze persists, and the
form of the statue is gained. Aristotle pairs this with the distinction between
potentiality and actuality: matter is potentially something until form makes it
actually so. This theory underpins his explanations of change and asserts that
matter and form are fundamental, mind-independent aspects of reality.
ARISTOTELIAN TELEOLOGY
Aristotle's four-causal explanatory scheme includes material, formal,
efficient, and final causes. The most controversial is the final cause, which
Aristotle defends as essential for understanding natural phenomena. He
critiques Plato's theory of Forms, arguing that potentialities require actual
efficient causes to become actualities. Final causes explain why things
happen for specific purposes, like kidneys purifying blood. Aristotle asserts
that natural ends exist independently of intentional design. Despite criticisms,
Aristotle's teleology argues that regular and patterned occurrences in nature,
such as teeth formation, are not due to chance but serve specific purposes,
revealing immanent natural ends.
SUBSTANCE
Aristotle’s four-causal schema is integral to his advanced philosophical
investigations, leading to questions about how hylomorphism intersects with
his theory of substance. Initially, Aristotle considers living beings like
Socrates as primary substances. However, with hylomorphism, primary
substances are seen as compounds of matter and form. This raises the
question of which is truly the primary substance: form, matter, or the
compound. In "Metaphysics," Aristotle concludes that form is the primary
substance due to its role in defining what the compound is and providing its
identity conditions. Despite form’s primacy, the relationship between form,
matter, and compound remains complex and debated.
LIVING BEINGS
Given the primacy of form as substance, Aristotle identifies the
soul as the form of a living being, serving as the source and cause
of life. All living things have souls, distinguished by their ability
to live. The soul is a cause in three ways: as the source of motion
(efficient cause), the purpose (final cause), and the substance
(formal cause) of the body. The soul unifies the body by
organizing it around a function, making it organic. Aristotle’s
hylomorphism balances between materialism and Platonic
dualism, emphasizing the importance of both matter and form in
explaining life.
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