Understanding Yourself &

Others

CORE SLIDES
 Objectives
By the end of this session participants will be able to:

 Understand perception, perceptual distortions and errors

 Understand the defining personality characteristics of individuals
 Understand how personality is relevant to organisational behaviour
 Appreciate how personality can be measured at work
 Appreciate that people have different needs and drivers, and get
different things from different activities which help them to self-
motivate
 Understand Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation
 Understand key content and process theories of motivation
 Understand that motivators can change

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PERCEPTION

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PERCEPTION

What do you see?

………….. Are you sure?

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What about here..?

………….. Is there another

way to see this?

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 What is perception?

Perception is a process by which human

beings organise and interpret their sensory
impressions to give meaning to their
environment.

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 Perception
People perceive things in their own unique way
Individuals detect stimuli in the environment,
process it and then take action in response
Peoples behaviour is based on how they perceive
reality, not on reality itself
Appreciating how people perceive the environment
is important in understanding why people behave
the way that they do in organisations
Through the perceptual process, individuals can take
“shortcuts” in making judgements about other
people

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 Perceptual Distortions

How individuals perceive things is not a

perfect representation of reality itself and
perception errors and distortions can occur
when individuals misinterpret the
information which they have received.

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 Main Perceptual Distortions and Errors
Stereotyping – Assigning positive or negative characteristics on
the basis of general categorisation;
Horns/Halo effect – Focusing on either one positive or negative
aspect and using that characteristic to assess the whole;
Perceptual defence – Screening out stimuli which are disturbing
or threatening;
Projection – Where we perceive that other people are thinking
in in a similar way to our self and project what we are thinking
onto them;
Self-fulfilling prophecy – when a belief in, or expectation of, a
certain state of affairs leads to behaviour which then brings
about that state of affairs.

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 Reflection…

Can you think of times when perceptual

distortions or errors may have affected your
actions/behaviour towards others?

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PERSONALITY

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 What is Personality?
“The dynamic organisation within the individual of
those psychophysical systems that determine his
unique adjustments to his environment.” (Allport,
1937)

“Personality is the set of psychological traits and

mechanisms within the individual that are organized
and relatively enduring and that influence his or her
interactions with, and adaptations to, the
intrapsychic, physical, and social environment.”
(Larsen & Buss, 2005)

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Importance of Understanding Personality
As personality is a major individual difference and we are
analysing organisations from the level of the individual it
is important to understand this concept in greater depth.
Understanding personality types is helpful for
appreciating that while people are different, everyone
has a value, and special strengths and qualities.
Personality directly affects motivation, as people with
different traits and characteristics behave and operate in
varying ways.
Personality can have a powerful effect on a person’s
attitude toward their job and their approach to work,
ultimately influencing different aspects of their
profession.
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 Personality: Trait Theory
There are a number of different paradigms within the
field of psychology to help us understand the concept of
personality
One of those paradigms is Trait Theory, which posits that
all human beings share the same set of underlying
characteristics (or ‘traits’) – what makes each of us
unique is that we possess those characteristics in
different quantities
A simple but powerful example of Trait Theory is ‘The Big
5’ (or ‘OCEAN’)

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 Trait Theory – The ‘Big 5’ (OCEAN)
High Medium Low

O. Openness – comfortable being intellectually fluid in decision making;

valuing originality, creativity. Open to a wider variety of stimuli, more
willing to take risks.
C. Conscientiousness - focusing on delivery, particularly quality and
timeliness of outputs. Self-disciplined, careful, planful, scrupulous and
persevering.
E. Extraversion - actively connecting and interacting with the ‘outer’ world
of events, things and people. Socially and emotionally expressive.
A. Agreeableness - placing importance of the quality of relationships with
others and social harmony. Socially open, accepting, tolerant and
responsive to the needs of others.
N. Emotional Variability (Neuroticism) - stability, intensity, duration and
impact of feelings and emotional experiences.

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 Reflect…
Fitting Personality to Roles
In terms of the ‘Big 5’, what 1-2 key
characteristics would you want to see
in people who are:
– Project managers?
– Entrepreneurs?
– Researchers?
What might be less ideal traits for
these roles?

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 The ‘Big 5’ (OCEAN) -
Analytica and the 2016 US election

https://www.businessinsider.com/facebook-personal
ity-test-cambridge-analytica-data-trump-election-20
18-3?r=US&IR=T

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An alternative Trait Model of Personality:
The Myers Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
4 factors based on how we process Information

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An illustration of the importance organisations
place on personality: Rolls Royce Recruitment

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Rolls Royce Recruitment continued…

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Technological advances in personality
profiling... The use of social media
Social media sites such as facebook and twitter can play a
role in allowing employers to decipher personality types
based on users’ word choice & activity pattern.
Research indicates that people who use words like ‘perfect’
tend to be perfectionists.
Those who are deemed more caring use words like 'we',
'friends' and 'family' and people who were seen as more
individualistic used words such as 'words' or 'school'.
Longer words are associated with people likely to get on with
their colleagues and conscientious people talk about their
achievements.

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MOTIVATION
What is Motivation?
Motivation refers to “… the reasons
underlying behaviour.” (Guay et al., 2010)

Gredler, Broussard and Garrison (2004)

broadly define motivation as “… the attribute
that moves us to do or not to do something.”

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What fuels Motivation?
We have examined how employees possess different types of
personalities and therefore act and behave in unique ways.
In turn, different types of personalities thrive on different types
of motivation.
For example, people who operate in an environment that suits
their individual personality type are more likely to be successful
and satisfied employees. So, if effort to achieve success is
driven by motivation, and if personality affects motivation,
then personality also affects a person’s likelihood of pursuing
professional achievement.

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 Reflect…

What do you think will motivate

you at work and why?

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Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation
Can be instigated from ‘outside’ (from the
leader, from colleagues, from the promise
of reward or incentive, or avoidance of
discomfort);
Can come from ‘inside’ (by being in a
context where there is the opportunity to
satisfy your own psychological needs).

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An illustration of the application of
EXTRINSIC Motivation: Accenture

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And also INTRINSIC Motivation:
Accenture cont’d

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 Daniel Pink on Motivation

Watch this video - What are your thoughts..?

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Motivation – Perspectives – Two
main types of Theory
Content Theories – what motivates -
needs, strengths and goals (e.g. Alderfer, 1972;
McClelland, 1962; Herzberg, 1968; Nohria et al, 2008).

Process Theories – process of motivation –

relationship between the dynamic
variables. How behaviour is initiated (e.g.
Adams, 1965; Locke, 1968).

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 Herzberg’s Two-factor Theory

Hygiene factors – do
not normally
motivate but can
create demotivation
if they are not
managed properly
Motivators – when
properly applied,
can create positive
motivation

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 Alderfer’s Need Hierarchy Model
People are motivated to pursue some universal needs:

Existence needs
– concerned with sustaining human existence and survival
and covers physiological and safety needs of a material
nature.
Relatedness needs
– concerned with relationships to the social environment
and covers love or belonging, affiliation, and meaningful
interpersonal relationships.
Growth needs
– concerned with the development of potential and covers
self-esteem and self-actualisation.

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 McLelland’s Cognitive Needs
There is a set of key psychological (or cognitive) needs
that may be particularly relevant in a work context:
Achievement (Getting things done, successful accomplishment of
goals, clarity of purpose, making things happen, avoiding failure)
Affiliation (Connecting with others; feeling part of something, feeling
liked, avoiding loneliness)
Autonomy (Having the freedom to decide what to do and how to do
it, controlling what happens to you, avoiding dependence on others)
Power (Influencing outcomes; being responsible for controlling
events, making things happen right, avoiding risk)
Order (Controlling ambiguity; creating certainty and predictability,
clarity of understanding; avoiding mental overload )
Status (Gaining and maintaining the respect and positive regard of
others, feeling valued, significant; avoiding worthlessness)

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Nohria, Groysberg and Lee’s Four Drives
Model
Nohria et al (2008) identified four innate needs or drives,
which they claim are the product of our common
evolutionary heritage and are, therefore, universal:

The drive to acquire

The drive to bond

The drive to comprehend

The drive to defend

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How to fulfil the drives that motivate employees
(Nohria, Groysberg, Lee (2008)

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 Process Theories
Three well-established theories:

Equity Theory (Adams J, 1963)

Expectancy Theory (Porter and Lawler, 1968)

Goal Theory (Locke, 1968)

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 Equity Theory (Adams J, 1963)
Equity theory suggests
that we assess our
circumstances by
comparing our
situation with others’
If we come to the
conclusion that we are
not being treated
equally (ie, fairly) then
we may become
dissatisfied and
demotivated

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Expectancy Theory Porter & Lawler (1968)
We expect that the more effort we put in, the better our performance will
be; and that when we perform well, we will receive some kind of
recognition or reward that we value.
If these expectations are not met, we are likely to lose motivation.

8.
1. 4. Perceived
Perceived Individual equity of
7a.
Value of abilities and rewards
Intrinsic
rewards traits
rewards

3. 6.
9.
Effort Performance
Job satisfaction

7b.
2. Extrinsic
Expectation that 5. rewards
performance will Role perceptions
be rewarded

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 Goal Theory (Locke, 1968)
People’s goals play an important part in determining
behaviour

There is a relationship between goals and performance

Within reason, the harder the goal is, the more a person
will work to achieve it

The efficacy of an individual’s goals is mediated by their

values

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 Goal Theory
Impact: Plenty of evidence that goal-setting enhances
performance at the individual and group level
Clarity of Goals: Specific, Measurable, Actionable,
Realistic, Timebound – SMART
A Sense of Challenge: Goals should be achievable but
stretching
Commitment: Goal setting is more effective when there
is agreement to go for the goal
Feedback: Individuals need to know about outcomes – it
allows for learning and adjustment
Task Complexity: Ensure time is given and required skills
are applied to solve complex goals

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Goal Theory and Empowerment
Empowerment is the process of enabling or
authorising an individual to think, behave, take
action, and control work and decision making in
autonomous ways. It is the state of feeling self-
empowered to take control of one's own destiny.
Allowing employees a voice in setting their own
goals – or determining how they will achieve them
– is a form of empowerment
Empowerment can be seized by an employee, as
well as granted by a superior.

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 Self Determination Theory:
Deci and Ryan
► An approach that links personality, motivation and well-
being
► Controlled motivation is extrinsic, focused on rewards
and punishments
► Autonomous motivation is principally intrinsic but can be
extrinsic if the individual sees value in the activity
required of them
► Autonomous Motivation satisfies needs for Autonomy,
Relatedness and Competence

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Edward Deci - Self Determination Theory

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 Motivation and life-stage/interests
Different things motivate different people, in different ways and at
different stages in life.

Career stages:
Entry
Early career – establishment and achievement
Mid-career - consolidation
Late-career – preparation for retirement

Other life factors that may influence what motivates an individual:

Single person
Spouse
Parent
Carer, e.g. of elderly parents
Outside interests (work-to-live)

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 Motivation and Generation ‘N’
Different things motivate different people, in different ways and at
different periods in time.

Baby Boomers or “The Me Generation” (born c.1948 – 1963)

Generation X or “Reactive Generation” or “Nomad Generation”

(born c.1964 - 1978)

Generation Y or “Millennials” (born c.1979 to 1991)

Generation Z or “Generation I” (Internet) or “Generation @” or

“Digital Natives” (born c.1992 onwards)

(Note: This classification is generally accepted in the Western but

may not be appropriate in other cultures. Dates are approximate.)

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Personality, Motivation & HR

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EMOTIONS

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 Emotions at work

Professor Neil Askanasy has conducted extensive research in emotions at work

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 Emotions
Emotions are intense feelings that human beings
experience - often briefly - and which are usually
directed at specific events or people.
We all experience a range of emotions at work and
elsewhere which can be positive or negative
including, for example, joy, gratitude, anger,
sadness and disgust.
Emotions are fundamental to shaping work
behaviour (Briner, 1999; Briner & Tottedell, 2002).

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 Negative Emotions
Frustration, Anger, Anxiety, Distress, Fear,
etc…
Short term responses to physiological
threat: ‘Fight or Flight’ responses
Longer term reactions to psychological
threat: to loss, ambiguity, uncertainty
(more common at work)

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 The Relationship between Stress and
Performance: The Yerkes-Dodson Law (1908)

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 Sources of Stress at Work
Research has identified many potential
sources of occupational stress including:
Work load
Role ambiguity
Role conflict
Poor relationships at work
Job insecurity
Source: Cooper (1983)

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Chronic Stress and Burnout

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 Managing Stress in Yourself
and Your Team

Locate your stress – triggers, times, people

Create space for engagement and focus
Create conditions for rest and recovery
Learn to switch between rest and recovery

Ascher and Tonies: McKinsey Quarterly February, 2021

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 Positive Emotions
Broaden and Build Theory (Barbara Fredrickson)
Positive Emotions: eg, love, joy, gratitude, interest, hope
– Broaden people’s momentary thought-action
repertoire (i.e., open hearts and minds)
– Help build enduring personal resources
• Physical
• Intellectual
• Social
• Psychological
– Creating a virtuous circle

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Emotional Intelligence (EQ)
“The ability to monitor one’s own and others’ feelings
and emotions, to discriminate amongst them, and to
use this information to guide one’s thinking and
actions”.
Salovey and Mayer, 1990

“What really matters for success, character,

happiness and life-long achievements is a definite set
of emotional skills – your EQ – not purely cognitive
abilities that are measured by conventional IQ tests”.
– Daniel Goleman, 1996

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EQ: A Framework of Emotional Competencies

Goleman (2001)

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Daniel Goleman – A Framework for EQ

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 Importance of EQ to Leadership Efficacy:
Five key skills sets
1. Self-awareness:
The ability to recognise your own moods and understand their effect on others.
2. Self-regulation:
The ability to control disruptive moods and think before you act.
3. Self-motivation:
A drive to work, which is not linked to financial compensation and which
enables you to pursue goals with enthusiasm and passion
4. Empathy:
The skill of understanding the emotions and drives of other people and to
treat people according to their emotional responses.
5. Social skills:
The ability to manage relationships, build networks, and establish rapport
with others.
Harrison & Clough (2006)

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 References
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