Slide title

ORGANISATIONS,
PEOPLE &
PERFORMANCE

Achieving High
Performance through
People
Supplementary Slides
Objectives
By the end of this session participants will be able
to:
 Understand workforce planning in the organisation.
 Understand Recruitment “steps”
 Have an appreciation of employer branding.
 Understand employment flexibility in organisations.
 Understand what the psychological contract is
 Understand workforce retention
 Understand what diversity and inclusion is and its importance in the
workplace
 Appreciate the relevance and significance of business ethics and understand
key ethical theories
Workforce Planning
Workforce Planning Process
Understand CIPD May 2018
Guide to Workforce
organisation and planning
environment

Monitor and Analyse current

evaluate workforce

Actions to address Determine future

shortages/ skills
workforce needs
or mismatches

Identify workforce
Gaps vs. Needs
Workforce Planning and change

Transactiona Transitiona Transformationa

l Change
• Changes to current operational
practices
• Short term resource changes
l Change
• New processes or technology
introduction
• Linked to business plan
l Change
• Change in business or operating
models
• New capabilities
• New resource configurations

CIPD May 2018

Guide to Workforce
planning
 Understanding the Organisation and its
Environment
Source: Torrington et al (2020)
• Review PESTLE/ ESTEMPLE analysis of high
level business factors
• Internal Labour market analysis :
sources of current staff and recent
leavers, internal promotions –
locations , companies, diversity of
intake ,
• External Labour Market – Age , Skills,
Education, Employment, Sources of
competition for labour and their terms and
conditions or salaries or employer brand
offering
• Understand current operating
model at business and unit level ;
e.g. core business processes ,
systems, capabilities, supplier/
ecosystem relationships
• Understand key elements of
business strategy – and required
resource / skill changes Source: CIPD May 2018
Guide to Workforce planning
Key strategic questions
 What are main growth requirements or constraints ?
 What are the planned product or service introductions or
withdrawals ?
 What are the planning timeframes for resourcing and training
to deliver the strategy ?
 What organisational changes are planned ?
 What is the assumed impact of any productivity/
technology initiatives ?
 Are there any plans to outsource or insource ?
 Are there additional legal or regulatory
requirements with resource or skill impact ?
Analysing the Current Workforce
 Analyse current job groupings
 Gather relevant data on demographics,
absence, diversity, leaver rates, Ts. and Cs etc
 Include key agency or outsource requirements
 Build integrated model of how these factors
interrelate – e.g. required vacancies with loss
to internal promotions
Establish Future Workforce Needs
Determine desired future
composition of workforce

Shape
Structure, ratios of
managers to front line,
role and size of HQ
• Ts and C changes
• Workflow analysis
• Job Redesign
Skills • Ratios/ Benchmarks
• Scenario Planning
Capabilities to meet
new goals or address
skills gaps

Location
Availability in right Size : Optimum
place number of jobs

Cost
Pay and costs to
train and
recruit
Gap Analysis and Action planning
• Confirm extent of new Resources and Skills needed and
the extent of change required

• Explore range of resourcing and upskilling or reskilling

options and contingencies to deliver required changes

• Factor in any Diversity and Inclusion targets and

strategies

• Develop prioritised action plan to tackle critical gaps Options for Resource Acquisition

• Create Recruitment, Talent and Skills Programmes Build Buy Borrow

to deliver
• Develop • Hire new • JV
talent talent • Agency
from • Supply
within chain
Monitoring and Evaluation

 Review mechanisms
 Benefits Realisation
 Refinements
Workforce analytics - the Civil Aviation Authority
approach
What do we want to know? How can we measure that?

Source: Robinson, D. (2009) .

 References
 CIPD (2018). Guide to Workforce Planning Practice. London: CIPD
 Robinson, D. (2009). Human capital measurement: An approach that works. Strategic
HR Review, Vol. 8, No. 6.
 Torrington, D., Hall, L., Taylor, S. and Atkinson, C. (2020). Human Resource
Management. 11th ed. Harlow: Pearson Publishing.

13
Recruitment
Recruitment
‘Includes those practices and activities carried out
by the organisation with the primary purpose of
identifying and attracting potential employees’.
(Breaugh and Starke 2000: 45)

Formal, structured recruitment methods are part

of a best practice set of HR practices which can
contribute to improving organisational
performance.
Recruitment “Steps”
What does the job consist of ?
Job Analysis
In what ways (if at all) is the job to be different from the job done by the previous incumbent?

Identify competencies What competencies are needed to this job?

Draw up job descriptions Job description is about the requirements of the job that someone is being recruited for
and Person Person specification focuses on the individual’s capabilities, qualifications, skills and experience.
specifications

Advertise in the
appropriate medium Corporate website, recruitment agencies, Job center plus, etc.

Adapted from Siddique (2004), Sanchez and Levin (2009), Martin (2010)
Internal & External Recruitment
Internal Recruitment: Vacancies can be filled
from inside the organisation, creating an
“internal labour market”.

External Recruitment: Vacancies filled by

those outside the existing organisation.
Recruitment Methods
Many recruitment methods exist including:
 Company website
 Jobs boards e.g. Indeed etc
 Professional networking e.g. LinkedIn
 Recruitment firms
 Specialist Journals and trade press
 Links with schools, colleges and
universities
References
 Breaugh, J. and Starke, M. (2000). Research on employee recruitment: So
many studies, so many remaining questions. Journal of management. 26(3),
pp.405-434.
 Sanchez, J. and Levine, E. (2009). What is (or should be) the difference
between competency modelling and traditional job analysis?. Human
Resource Management Review. 19(2), pp.53-63.
 Siddique, C. (2004). Job analysis: A strategic human resource management
practice. The International Journal of Human Resource Management. 15(1),
pp.219-244.
Employer Branding
Employer Brand
 A set of attributes and qualities – often intangible –
that makes an organisation distinctive, promises a
particular kind of employment experience, and
appeals to those people who will thrive and
perform to their best in its culture.

 Integrated into all HR processes to ensure consistent

employee experience - it is as much about
employee engagement & retention as it about
recruitment.
Influence of Corporate Brand on Employer Brand
Source:
PeopleBrandManagement Corporate Leadership Council (1999)
Product Brandanditscomponents EmploymentBrand
Employment Brandand
anditsitscomponents
components

Product Compensation&
Features Quality& Benefits
Work
Performance Product / Environment
Image& Company
Prestige Brand
Value& Strength
Price Company Work-Life
Innovation& Balance
Design E Culture&
M Environment
P
L
O
Y
E
E 22
S
 Delivery of employer brand

Brand strength
Attraction
Attraction of
of the
the right
right
candidates
candidates
Employer Brand Employee Employee
Employee engagement
engagement and
and
The
The unique
unique and experience retention
retention

+
and
Differentiation
Differentiation from
from
differentiating
differentiating promise
promise aa Actual
Actual delivery
delivery of
of the
the competitors
competitors
business
business makes
makes to
to its
its promise
promise throughout
throughout the
the Customer
Customer engagement
engagement andand
employees
employees andand potential
potential employee
employee lifecycle
lifecycle retention
retention
candidates
candidates

 Attraction of high quality employees is a competitive necessity

 Engagement of high quality is a bottom line issue
 Link with employee experience and the psychological contract
23
JLR: Excellence in Motion brand
• Created a dedicated website
• Their campaigns focus on exciting and challenging
careers.
• In January 2016, JLR was voted 'No 1 Employer in UK' in the
‘Bloomberg Survey of 100 Best Companies to work for’

Source: http:/www.jaguarlandrovercareers.com/

39
JLR: Excellence in Motion brand example 1

39
JLR: Excellence in Motion brand example 2

39
References
Corporate Leadership Council (1999). The Employment Brand:
Building Competitive Advantage in the Labor Market. Washington,
D.C.: Corporate Executive Board.
Flexible Working
The flexible firm model –
Atkinson

Source: J. Atkinson (1984)

Workforce flexibility
Numerical flexibility
– Organisations respond to changes in the business environment by
changing the number of people employed.

Temporal flexibility
– Organisations respond by varying the pattern of hours worked away
from the standard 9-5, five day week model.

Functional flexibility
– Organisations respond by enabling employees to gain the capacity to
undertake a variety of tasks rather than specialising in order that they
can move areas according to business demand.
 Gig economy – a snapshot
 A growing number of workers are no longer employed in ‘jobs’ with a long-term
connection with a company but are hired for ‘gigs’ under ‘flexible’
arrangements as ‘independent contractors’ or ‘consultants,’ working only to
complete a particular task or for a defined time

 While the rise of this ‘gig’ economy is praised by some as a response to the
wishes of a more entrepreneurial generation, it may be driven by the concerns
of businesses to reduce labour costs.

 The rise of gig economy may call for new initiatives in social policy - because it
shifts more of the burden of economic risk onto workers.

 The ‘Gig economy’ concept can be questioned as it could be argued that in

order to build an engaged and productive workforce, employers need to invest
more in supporting their contingent workers.
Sources: Friedman (2014) and Torres (2018)
Gig economy illustration – Uber and the on
demand mobile workforce
 Uber–the company–has produced ‘on-demand labour’.
 Labour is managed, compensated and allocated from an app.
 With applications such as Uber, technology is directly involved in labour issues. That is,
pay, flexibility and work conditions – not only in how the work is done but also the
conditions under which it is done (Glöss et.al, 2016)

The Guardian - Uber drivers go on strike

https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2016/nov/22/uber-drivers-go-slow-protest-
central-london-minimum-wage-guarantee

Since then…
 In Oct 2016, Uber lost right to classify UK drivers as self-employed - Landmark
employment tribunal ruling stated Uber must also pay drivers the national living wage
and holiday pay with huge implications for gig economy.
 Uber appealed the case and lost that as well.
 This is an ongoing issue…
 References
J. Atkinson (1984). Manpower strategies for flexible organisations. Personnel
Management, August.
 Friedman, G., (2014). ‘Workers without employers: shadow corporations and
the rise of the gig economy’. Review of Keynesian Economics, 2(2), pp.171-
188.
 Glöss, M., McGregor, M. and Brown, B., (2016) ‘Designing for labour: Uber
and the on-demand mobile workforce’. In Proceedings of the 2016 CHI
conference on human factors in computing systems (pp. 1632-1643). ACM.
 Torres, N. (2018) ’Are there good jobs in the gig economy? ‘Harvard Business
Review, July-August 2018, pp 146-147.

33
Psychological Contract

34
 Definitions

Guest and Conway (2002):“A two way exchange of

perceived promises and obligations.”

Rousseau (1989): “The set of expectations held by

the individual employee about reciprocal
arrangements and exchanges.”

Schein (1980): “Unwritten reciprocal expectations.”

 Expectations
Organisation of Individual
 Uphold ideology and image of
organisation
 Work diligently
 Stick to policies, procedures and rules
 Respect authority, not abuse trust
 Be responsive to leaders and show
goodwill
 Demonstrate loyalty
 Not to abuse facilities and resources
 Show respect to colleagues, customers
and suppliers
 Maintain harmonious working
relationships
 Respect standards of conduct and dress
Individual of Organisation
 Equitable treatment
 Having a voice in decisions that impact
them, respect Trade Unions
 Safe and hygienic working conditions
 Provide challenging and rewarding jobs
 Fair reward for contribution and
performance
 Treat members of staff with respect
 Demonstrate an understanding and
considerate attitude towards personal
issues
 Provide opportunities for development
and career progression
 Make every reasonable effort to provide
job security
A Model of the Psychological Contract (1998)
David Guest

Influences The state of Consequences

the contract
Organisation
Positive
climate
employment
Fairness
Human relations
resource Trust
Job
practices
Delivery of satisfaction
TU “the deal”
Commitment
membership
Motivation
Individual
experiences &
expectations
 Typology of Psychological Contract
Rousseau (1995)
Performance Terms
Duration Specified Not specified

Short Transactional Transitional

• Low ambiguity
term
• Easy exit/high turnover
• Low member commitment
• Freedom to enter new contracts
• Weak integration/identification
• High turnover/termination
• Instability
• Ambiguity
(Characterised now by the Gig Economy)

Balanced
• High integration/identification
Relational
• High member commitment
• Ongoing development
• High affective commitment
• Mutual support
Long • High member commitment
• High integration/identification

term • Dynamic
• Stability
 The Psychological Contract
Transactional Relational

Development Training
Delivers a Develops a relationship
value Security with the Corporation
transaction
Stimulation Progression
Recognition of diverse styles Pride

Ownership Social inclusion

 Psychological Contract Terms
Rousseau (1995)
Time Frame Time period of the employment relationship. Transactional should not exceed two to three
years

Formalisation This refers to the way it is constituted. In the transactional no obligation or commitment is
expected except those clearly identified specified and approved. In the relational contract there
is a mixture of written and unwritten terms.

Inclusion Degree of integration within the organisation. The transactional employee invests little emotion
in their work.

Focus Refers to the motivation of the employee varying from economic exchange to emotional
involvement.

Scope Use of expertise to whatever the organisation requires.

Stability Little flexibility unless renegotiation takes place in the transactional contract. The unwritten
aspect of the relational contract means it is more flexible and agile

Tangibility Refers to the degree of ambiguity of the contents. Can they be understood by a third party? If
so it is transactional.
References
 Guest, D. (1998). Is the psychological contract worth taking
seriously? Journal of Organisational Behaviour. Vol 19.
 Guest, D. and Conway, N. (2002). Communicating the Psychological
Contract: an employer perspective. Human resource Management
Journal. Vol. 12. No.2
 Rousseau, D. (1995). Psychological Contracts in Organisations.
Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
 Rousseau, D. (1989). Psychological and implicit contracts in
organisations. Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal. Vol. 2.
 Schein, E. (1980). Organisational Psychology. New Jersey: Englewood
Cliffs
Employee Retention

42
Employee retention
Employee engagement has a number of performance
outcomes.
Retention is one of these outcomes.
Retention is measured by labour turnover rates, but turnover
can take many forms, e.g.:
– Resignation
– Retirement
– Dismissal
– Redundancy.
High turnover can be very costly.

Source: Torrington et. al (2020)

The impact of labour turnover
Positive impact of turnover
Organisations need ‘fresh
blood’ to avoid becoming
stale or stunted
Turnover helps managers
to keep firmer control over
labour costs
Turnover may result in the
loss of poor performers
Negative impact of turnover
Turnover is costly in terms
of the recruitment process
Leavers represent the loss
of a trained resource
possibly to competitors
High turnover may be
symptomatic of a poorly
managed organisation
Source: Torrington et. al (2020)
Analysing labour turnover
Functional turnover
– Resignations which are beneficial to both employer and employee.
Outside factors
– Resignations for reasons not related to work.
Push factors
– Resignations resulting from dissatisfaction with the work or
organisation.
Pull factors
– Resignations resulting from the attractiveness of rival employers.

Source: Torrington et. al (2020)

Seven ‘hidden reasons employees leave’:
Branham (2005)
The job or workplace was not living up to
expectations.
A mismatch between the person and the job.
Too little coaching and feedback.
Too few growth and advancement opportunities.
Feeling devalued and unrecognised.
Stress from overwork and work–life imbalance.
Loss of trust and confidence in senior leaders.
Key factors in retention:
Samuel and Chipunza (2009)

Training and development

Challenging and interesting work
Freedom for innovative thinking
Job security
 References
 Branham,L. (2005). The seven hidden reasons employees leave. New York:
The American Management Association.
 Samuel, M. and Chipunza, C. (2009). Employee retention and turnover: Using
motivational variables as a panacea. African journal of business
management. 3(9), pp.410-415.
 Torrington, D., Hall, L., Taylor, S. and Atkinson, C. (2020). Human resource
management. 11th edition. Harlow: Pearson Publishing.

48
Diversity & Inclusion
 FACT NOT FICTION!!!

“Although the gender pay gap is closing

incrementally, pay parity between men and
women in the UK is not forecast to be
achieved until 2069”.
Source: Deloitte (2016)
 What is Diversity and Inclusion
Diversity remains a description of how different
or similar people are within a workforce.
Inclusion refers to the cultural norms that
surround and influence diversity – the extent to
which people feel valued and are able to
contribute irrespective of their background or
personal characteristics.
51
CIPD Report (June 2018)
 Diversity and Inclusion – another
perspective
The basic concept of managing diversity accepts that the
workforce consists of a diverse population of people. The
diversity consists of visible and non-visible differences which will
include sex, age, background, race, disability, personality and
workstyle. It is founded on the premise that harnessing these
differences will create a productive environment in which
everybody feels valued, where their talents are being fully
utilised and in which organisational goals are met.

Source: Kandola and Fullerton(1994) 52

Significance of diversity and inclusion at
the workplace
The workforce today is characterized by increased
numbers of women, minorities, ethnic backgrounds,
intergenerational workers, and different lifestyles
(Langdon, McMenamin, & Krolik, 2002).
The extent to which these demographic workforce
changes are effectively and efficiently managed will affect
organizational functioning and competitiveness (Harvey,
1999; Kuczynski, 1999).
As demonstrated by the more than 75% of Fortune 1000
companies that have instituted diversity initiatives
(Daniels, 2001), the management of diversity has
become an important business imperative.
Managing Diversity & Inclusion
Places focus on individuals rather than specified
groups.
Managing diversity involves everyone.
Recognises and values difference.
Is based on an economic and business case for a
diverse workforce.
Discrimination in recruitment reduces potential
talent pool.
Diversity among employees reflects and
encourages a diverse customer base.
Source: Torrington et al (2020)
Problems with Managing D&I
Diversity management is complex and subject to
differing interpretations.
The focus on individual difference may have the
unintended result of reinforcing group based
stereotypes.
The ‘business case’ may prove unreliable making
managers more sceptical.
The lack of clarity of the concept may result in
conflict with relevant legislation.
Source: Torrington et al (2020)
What elements of diversity and
inclusion should we consider?
have immediate and obvious impact
on team dynamics because of
individuals’ tendency to categorise

Surface level diversity (aka Biodiversity and

Demographic diversity) – gender, age,
ethnicity may not be immediately obvious but
impacts workplace outcomes

Deep level diversity (aka Job-related

diversity)– education, occupational
background, job tenure and values
CIPD Report (June 2018)
A process for managing diversity:
Strategy: policies must have senior level support
sustained over time which support the business
goals and are legally compliant.
Workplace behaviour: respect and dignity must be
consistently valued.
Communication: needs to be open and
consultation should use multiple methods.
Training: equality and diversity concepts should be
central to all training including induction and
managerial training.
Measurement: regular audits and reviews to
evaluate progress and demonstrate business
benefits. Source: Torrington et al (2020)
 What supports greater inclusion
and diversity in the workplace?
Diversity training - Ranging from education to targeted
unconscious bias training
Mentoring for minority groups
Wider cultural change programmes
Flexible approaches to recruitment( eg.name – blind
recruitment), working patterns (especially for those with
caring responsibilities) and job design
Supportive work environment with an inclusive climate
CIPD Report (June 2018)
58
Key actions for D&I

CIPD Report (June 2018)

“Above The Glass Ceiling: When are women and
racial/ethnic minorities promoted to CEO?” (Cook
and Glass, 2014)
Key terms:
Taylor (2010) defines occupational minorities as
members of an occupation that are numerical rarities.
Glass cliff theory predicts that occupational minorities
are more likely to be promoted to leadership positions in
organizations that are struggling, in crisis, or at risk to fail
(e.g., Ryan and Haslam, 2007).
Negative firm performance in the short, medium, or
longer term leads to the replacement of occupational
minority CEOs with white men, a process termed the
‘Saviour effect’.
“Above The Glass Ceiling: When are women and
racial/ethnic minorities promoted to CEO?” (Cook
and Glass, 2014)
The study relies on a unique dataset of all CEO transitions in Fortune 500
companies over a 15-year period.
The study seeks to identify the mechanisms that increase the likelihood that
women and racial/ethnic minorities will be promoted to leadership
positions.
Conditions are identified under which occupational minorities are promoted
to top positions and their post promotion trajectories are analysed.
Conclusion: Occupational minorities are more likely than white men
to be promoted CEO in firms experiencing short-, medium-, or
long-term declines.
Negative firm performance leads to the ‘Saviour effect’.
These findings suggest that occupational minorities face greater challenges
when appointed CEO and are provided few degrees of freedom with which
to establish their leadership capabilities.
References
CIPD report ( June 2018) “Diversity and Inclusion at work – facing up to the
business case”
Cook, A. and Glass, C., (2014). Above the glass ceiling: When are women and
racial/ethnic minorities promoted to CEO?. Strategic Management
Journal, 35(7), pp.1080-1089.
Daniels, C. (2001, July 9). Too diverse for our own good. Fortune, 144, 116
Deloitte Report (2016) Women in STEM Technology, career pathways and the
gender pay gap. Available at https://
www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/uk/Documents/Growth/deloitte-uk-
women-in-stem-pay-gap-2016.pdf
Harvey, B. H. (1999). Technology, diversity and work culture—key trends in the
next millennium. HR Magazine, 44, 58-59.
Kandola,R. and Fullerton, J.(1994) Managing the Mosaic Diversity in Action,
IPD,p.19
Kuczynski, S. (1999). If diversity, then higher profits? HR Magazine, 44, 66-74
Langdon, D. S., Mc Menamin, T. M., & Krolik, T. J. (2002). U.S. labour market in
2001: Economy enters a recession. Monthly Labour Review, 125, 3-33.
References
Ryan M, Haslam S, Hersby M, and Bongiorno R. (2007). Think crisis-think
female: glass cliffs and contextual variation in the think-manager-think
male stereotype. Journal of Applied Psychology. 96(3): 470–484.
Taylor C. (2010) Occupational sex composition and the gendered
availability of workplace support. Gender and Society. 24(2): 189–212.
Torrington, D., Hall, L., Taylor, S. and Atkinson, C. (2020). Human Resource
Management. 11th ed. Harlow: Pearson Publishing.
Business Ethics

64
What is Business Ethics?
“Business Ethics is the study of business
situations, activities, and decisions where
issues of right and wrong are addressed”
Crane & Matten (2016)

“Business Ethics is the reflection on the

ethical behaviour of business organisations.”
Clegg et.al, (2015)
Relevance of ethics
Typical areas of concern - raising moral dilemmas - for managers from
Western countries include:

Bribery – demands by other parties for cash, benefits, gifts etc. Respondents
distinguished between ‘facilitation payments’ and large-scale bribes.

Breach of contract – counterparties broke contracts (non-payment).

Human rights and environment – child labour, discrimination, ‘exploitation’.

Confidentiality – managers using confidential information to obtain an

advantage (in winning a contract) – and vice versa.

Misrepresentation – being invited to falsify documents for tax evasion.

Pedigo & Marshall, 2004
 Relevance of ethics
Supply-chain issues – concerns by (western) consumers.
 Labour rights – minimum standards for employees
 Ethical and fair trading – supply chains that respect these rights:
problems in managing suppliers.
Risk management – impact on brand values & share price.
 Ethical risk is a problem in corporate governance: managers may be
tempted or under pressure to bribe to secure orders - but shareholders
and their institutions are usually opposed
 Ethical reputation can be an important part of a firm’s ‘employer
brand’
Illustration- Volkswagen
emissions scandal
Contemporary Business Ethics
The need for ethical guidelines
– Business actions are the result of decisions by human beings who may
rationalise flawed behaviour.
Moral justification
– Moral stances are sometimes derived from a value system which is
independent of business itself.
Ethical principles
– Some standards derive from “voluntary agreement” by members of a
particular industry, sometimes enforced by statutory ‘watchdogs’.
Company codes of ethics
– Codes need to be understood, appreciated and honoured.

Source: Torrington et. al (2020)

Ethical Theories

A number of different ethics theories exist.

These theories are not necessarily
straightforward and may lead to surprising
outcomes. For example, it can be ethical to
do things for your own self interest (egoism)!
Overview of Ethical theories
(i)Consequentialist:
Egoism
Utilitarianism
(ii)Non-consequentialist:
Deontological (duty)
Rights and Justice
(iii)Virtue ethics
Egoism

Individuals do what is in their own

self-interest.
Utilitarianism
The best moral action is the one that maximises
utility. Utility is defined in various ways but
mainly in terms of wellbeing. The focus is on the
greater good.
It is a calculating approach to ethics.
Cost-benefit analysis is a natural tool of this
approach.
Deontological (duty)
This is the study of obligation or duty on the actor as to
whether he/she has complied. Immanuel Kant (one of
the key architects of this approach) has argued that we
must act from duty - good in itself and without
qualification.
This approach to moral behavior is one that believes that
moral reasoning and action should be guided by universal
principles that hold irrespective of the context in which
an ethical dilemma may exist. (Etzioni, 1988)
Rights and Justice
The Rights set forth by society are protected and given
the highest priority. Rights are considered to be ethically
correct and valid since a large, or ruling population,
endorses them. Rights include certain basic liberties such
as the right to freedom of speech and the right to
equality of opportunity, together with basic general rights
of freedom, autonomy and equality.

Justice is concerned with how different individuals stand

relative to each other in relation to rights and liberties.
Perceptions of fairness, from an individual’s perspective,
are important in this instance.
Virtue Ethics
Judges a person by his/her character rather than by an
action that may deviate from his/her normal behavior.
It is not a system of rules, but rather a set of personal
characteristics that, if practiced, will ensure that the
individual is likely to make the ‘right’ choice in any
ethically complex situation.
“What would a virtuous person do in this situation?”
Plato identified 4 virtues – Wisdom, Courage, Self-
control and Justice
 References
Clegg, S.R., Kornberger, M. and Pitsis, T., (2015). Managing and organizations: An
introduction to theory and practice. Sage.
Crane, A. and Matten, D., (2016). Business ethics: Managing corporate citizenship
and sustainability in the age of globalization. Oxford University Press.
Etzioni, A. (1988). The Moral dimension: Toward a new economics. New York: The
Free Press
Fisher, C. and Lovell, A., Valero-Silva, N. (2013). Business ethics and values. 4th
edition. Pearson education.
Pedigo, K. and Marshall, V., (2004). International ethical dilemmas confronting
Australian managers: Implications for the training and development of employees
working overseas. Journal of European Industrial Training. 28(2/3/4), pp.183-198.
Torrington, D., Hall, L., Taylor, S. and Atkinson, C. (2020). Human Resource
Management. 11th ed. Harlow: Pearson Publishing.

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