PRINCIPLE ,CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING

OF RADIATION DETECTORS AND THEIR USES

MODERATOR: MISS SATINDER PAL
KAUR
PRESENTED BY: PARIKSHIT SALARIA
Radiation detectors
A knowledge of characteristics and magnitude of the radiation field is
essential in evaluating the degree of radiological benefits/hazard present .
Radiation itself cannot be detected directly .Because of this, radiation
detection is accomplished by the analysis of the effects produced as it
interacts in a medium.
Instrument used to detect , track and or identify ionising particle is
known as RADIATION DETECTOR.
History
CLOUD CHAMBER-Charles Thomson Rees Wilson, early 1920
BUBBLE CHAMBER-Donald A. Glaser- 1952
PRINCIPLE

As charged particle passes through the chamber the interact with the
medium (supersaturated vapours alcohol or water , superheated lq H), and
create ionisation tracks which are then recorded

Most of the modern day detectors like gas filled detectors and
semiconductor detectors work on the principle of recording ionisation
created by radiation in the detectors in the form of an electrical signal.
WILSON CLOUD CHAMBER BUBBLE CHAMBER
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF
DETECTORS
SIMPLIFIED MODEL OF
DETECTOR

Charge
created
Ejection of within the
high speed detector is
electrons , and collected
they deposit producing an
their energy electrical
Interaction of signal
radiation by producing
within the charge within
active volume a volume
of the detector
 SENSITIVITY
Capability to produce a signal corresponding to an event
Factors affecting the sensitivity to a given type and E of rad:-

CROSS MASS OF INHERENT SURROUNDING

SECTION OF DETECTOR NOISE MATERIAL
INTERACTION
 EFFECIENCY
• Eabs
• Dependent
In the case of charged on detector
particle the detector will see prop and counting
every particle
which enters the active volume
ABSOLUTE geometry i.e distance from source to
detector .
EFFICIENCY
For uncharged particles:-

ABSOLUTE EFFICIENCY • Eabs

• Independent of the solid angle subtended
INTRINSIC by the detector
EFFICENCY
INTRINSIC EFFICENCY
• Eint=Eabs(4π/ῼ)
• Dependent on material , E and thickness
 MODES OF
OPERATION
PULSE MODE

CURRENT MODE

MEAN SQUARE MODE

PULSE MODE
Detectors which are designed to record each individual quantum of radiation that
interacts in the detector by recording the charge Q produced in an event.
Q α Energy deposited by the radiation
Works very well when the radiation event rate is very low.
Not suitable for high event rates because :-
1. Short sep time b/w adjacent pulses
2. Overlapping of current pulses of successive events
Case 1: c>>RC.

Current flowing through the resistance

=instantaneous value of current flowing
through the detector
Shape of voltage signal is identical to the
time dependent current
Detectors are operated in this mode
when timing info of the pulse is required .
 Case 2: c<<RC
Very little current flows through R during
tc.
The detector current is integrated on the
capacitor.
a) The rise edge is detector dependent and
the tailing edge is circuit dependent
b) Amplitude of the pulse ,
Detectors used for radiation spectroscopy
 CURRENT MODE

In current mode, all information regarding individual

interactions is lost
If T is fixed response time of the measuring device , then the
signal recorded form a sequence of the events will be given as
:-
If the amount of electrical charge collected from each
interaction is proportional to the energy deposited by that
interaction, then the net current is proportional to the dose
rate in the detector material .
The average current is given as :-
Uses – dosimeters ,survey meters.
 MEAN SQUARE MODE

BLOCK DIAGRAM :-
It is extension of current mode in which we measure
only the fluctuation component σ(t) by introducing a
circuit which blocks the average current and allows σ(t)
to pass.
This mode enhances the relative response of the
detector.
Useful in when making measurements in mixed
radiation .
Used in nuclear labourites.
 PULSE HEIGHT
SPECTRA
Pulse amplitude distribution is a fundamental property
of the detector output which is used to deduce info
about the incident radiation
In spectroscopy systems the objective is to sort each
pulse according to its amplitude, the pulses recorded
are sorted into the channels matching their amp and
hence PHA is obtained
A) Differential pulse height spectra
B) Integral pulse height spectra
Both of the curves convey the same info ,amp of any
pulse height is given as the absolute slope in the lower
curve.
 RESPONSE FUNCTION
 Ideally it should be a Dirac Delta function ,ie for a fixed
energy the output has a single fixed value
 Linear response means , pulse height spectra corresponds
directly to energy spectra
 Determination
- Interaction type, material and geometry
a) Is response function for 661 kev , for Ge detector large
photoelectric cross section hence larger photo peak,
relatively small continuous Compton spectra.
b) Organic scintillator , low z hence more Compton
scattering
 ENERGY
RESOLUTION
Is a measure of detectors response function
It is defined in terms of
Larger width represent large amt of fluctuation
Causes of fluctuations
-Drift form op characteristics
-Random noise from inst
-Statistical noiseFANNO FACTORnature
due to discrete
the measured signal
 DEAD TIME
The minimum time between two pulses so that they are
recorded as 2 different pulses .

• PARALYZABLE
• NON PARALYZABLE
 Non paralyzable
 Also known as non extendable dead
time.
 The detector remain insensitive
while processing an event .
 The detectors dead time remains
fixed and is not hampered by the
events occurring during this period
 Model :-
𝑛=
𝑚
1 −𝑚 г
Paralyzable
 Also known as extendable dead time.
 Arrival of a second pulse during the
dead period extends this period by
adding its dead time starting from
the moment of its arrival.
 Model :-
− 𝑛г
𝑚=𝑛 𝑒
 TYPES OF
DETECTORS

Ionisation Excitation
detectors detectors

Chemical
Other detector
detectors
 GAS FILLED DETECTORS
RESPONSE CURVE
Pulse height

Voltage
 1. IONIZATION CHAMBER
 Excitation:- X + p +p
 Ionization mechanism
1. Primary ionization
2. Secondary ionization
3. Penning ionization
Ne* + Ar Ne + Ar+ + e
4. Formation of molecular ions
He+ + He He2+
 W-Value
No. of ion pairs formed is determined the W-value which is average energy
expended to create an ion pair
 Loss of charges
ELECTRON ATTACHMENT RECOMBINATION

Electron attachment involves the X+ + e- X + hv

capture of free e- by elctro-ve to form –
ve ions Molecular recombination
These atom have almost full outer shell X+ + Y - XY + e-
so that the addition of an e results in Rate of recombination
release of energy =electron affinity
Presence of electro-ve would degrade =-αn+n-
the charge collection efficiency
Types of recombination
COLUMNAR RECOMBINATION
Arises from the fact that ion pairs are
formed along the track of ionizing
particle
Increases with increase in LET
Independent on the rate at which the
tracks are formed .
VOLUME RECOMBINATION
An encounter b/w an e/ion after
they have left the site of formation
Increases with increase in dose rate
Charge separation and collection
should be rapid to minimize
recombination
 Ionization current
Measurement of ionization current is the basic
principle of ion chamber
FACTORS AFFECTING SATURATION CURRENT
1. INCREASE IN HUMIDITY
2. RECOMBINATION -columnar and volume
3. PERTUBATION in measured current due to a
difference b/w the direction of diffusion and
drift current
-ΔI/I
The size of this loss in the saturation current
depends on applied voltage and the size of the
quantity E
 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
1. INSULATORS AND GUARD RINGS
 Supporting insulators are provided b/w the 2
electrodes.
 They are made up of a high resistive material to
minimize leakage current
 Leakage current due to absorbed moisture or other
contaminants is always present on the surface of the
insulator
 Most of voltage drop occur across the outer
insulator ,leakage current in this case do not pass
through the measuring instrument
 Voltage drop across the inner segment will be equal to
that across the ammeter.
 2. Measurement of current
ELECTROMETER
Measures the current by sensing the
voltage drop across a series resistance ,this
voltage signal is then amplified
Weakness – requires dc coupling
throughout
DYNAMIC CAPACITOR/VIBERATING REED
 Converts the dc signal into ac which is
more suitable amplification (by varying the
capacitance about the avg value)
ELECTRET
Group of solids that have a permanent
electrical polarization are called electret
Potential difference b/w the surface of
electret
Placed with one surface in contact with
the conducting wall, creating an E in the
cavity
Ion pairs collected serve to neutralize
the charge carried by the electret and
the potential drop is measured in the
electret
Application
Survey meters
Ionization chambers are widely used in the radiation industries as they provide
an output that is proportional to radiation dose.
 They find wide use in situations where a constant high dose rate is being
measured as they have a greater operating lifetime than standard Geiger-Müller
tubes, which suffer from gas break down and are generally limited to a life of
about 1011 count events.
Additionally, the Geiger-Müller tube cannot operate above about 104counts per
second, due to dead time effects, whereas there is no similar limitation on the ion
chamber.
 Medical radiation measurement
In medical physics and radiotherapy, ionization chambers are used to
ensure that the dose delivered from a therapy unit
or radiopharmaceutical is what is intended.
Chamber types
Thimble chamber
Most commonly used for radiation therapy measurements is a cylindrical
or "thimble" chamber.
 The active volume is housed within a thimble shaped cavity with an
inner conductive surface (cathode) and a central anode. A bias voltage
applied across the cavity collects ions and produces a current which can
be measured with an electrometer.
Parallel-plate chambers
 Parallel-plate chambers are shaped like a small disc, with circular collecting
electrodes separated by a small gap, typically 2mm or less.
 The upper disc is extremely thin, allowing for much more accurate near-surface
dose measurements than are possible with a cylindrical chamber.
Monitor chambers
 Monitor chambers are typically parallel plate ion chambers which are placed in
radiation beams to continuously measure the beam's intensity.
 For example, within the head of linear accelerators used for radiotherapy, multi-
cavity ionization chambers can measure the intensity of the radiation beam in
several different regions, providing beam symmetry and flatness information.
Smoke detectors
 The ionization chamber has found wide and
beneficial use in smoke detectors. In a
smoke detector, ambient air is allowed to
freely enter the ionization chamber.
 The chamber contains a small amount of
amrecium-241, which is an emitter of alpha
particles which produce a constant ion
current.
 If smoke enters the detector, it disrupts this
current because ions strike smoke particles
and are neutralized. This drop in current
triggers the alarm
 ADVANTAGES
Can be made into different sizes and
shapes
 Since no of ion pairs formed is a fn
of energy deposited ,response is
directly prop to the dose rate
Is used to measure the X as it is
defined in air ,when used with photon
rad gives the actual exposure rate
DISADVANTAGES
Less sensitive as the charge or current
formed is very small.
Owing to the small output the effect
of external condition can effect the op
to a measureable,.i.e anything that can
change the density can effect the
response particularly in thin wall
ion ,vented chambers op dec by 2%
with temp inc of 10 deg, and dec by
2.3% for every inch of hg decrease
 2.PROPORTIONAL COUNTERS
A proportional counter utilizes the
phenomenon of gas
multiplication to increase the pulse
size
Multiplication is a consequence of
the motion of a free electron in a
strong electric field .i.e when the
applied E>Eth
Multiplication model :-
Working
Types of chamber
Cylindrical (constructed using self contained gas )
Gas flow(constructed using continuously cleaning gas )

Design features of
cylindrical chamber

Choice of
Sealed tubes Fill gas
geometry
1. Choice of geometry
1.Cylindrical geometry
Gas multiplication requires large values of E ,which is attainable in cylindrical
geometry

Region of gas multiplication should be small so that most of the e are formed outside
this region , hence each e undergoes same multiplication regardless of its original
position
 2. Sealed tubes
Factors affecting proportionality
A. Axial distortion of E, due to non uniform thickness of anode wire
B. Distortion of E near the ends ,and is corrected by using FIELD TUBES
Fill gas
Gas is chosen do not exhibit an appreciable electron attachment coefficient (as the
multiplication critically depend on the migration of e)
Gas multiplication is based on secondary e collision with neutral atoms in active
region
Small amount of additional gases are added to reduce
A. Penning effect B. Quenching gas

 Long lived metastable state due to  Photon created during avalanche ,

primary interaction are involved
 To absorb the energy lost in these
events
 Gases with IE < Eext
 It lowers the W value of the gas
 Eg. P10 , methane
may cause the cause another
ionization after ejecting an e-
 Gases are added to absorb these
photons
 Gas flow detectors
1. Window 2 pi gas flow hemispherical detector
• Gas volume is continuously replenished (P10)
• Geometry is such that almost 50% of the radiation emitted
by the source is available for detection
• Essentially all radiation emitted from the surface of the
source enters active volume of detector
2. Windowless 2 pi gas flow detector
• The source is effectively within the detector
• Counting of low energy radiation
• Used for alpha detection
 ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Used to discriminate b/w diff. types of rad. Is sensitive to high voltage changes as
a result more highly regulated power
Good sensitivity due to avalanche hence
supplies is required
single event can be recorded with greater
efficiency
When measuring current ,it is useful for
dose rates since signal is porp. To energy
deposited and hence porp. To dose rate
Are most commonly used in neutron
monitoring
3. GEIGER MUELLER COUNTER
Operate at voltages above proportional detectors
In proportional each original e leads to avalanche which is independent of other
avalanches
In GM counter a situation is created in which a situation avalanche can trigger a
second avalanche and so on , resulting a self propagating chain reaction .
The avalanche grow exponentially in a very short time , known as the Geiger
discharge.
Once this Geiger discharge reaches a certain value the collective effect of this
discharge come into play and ultimately terminate the chain reaction .
All pulses have the same amplitude regardless of the no of initial ion pairs
Mechanism
Each primary ionization
◦ produces a complete avalanche of ions throughout the detector volume
◦ called a Townsend Avalanche
◦ continues until maximum number of ion pairs are produced
◦ avalanche may be propagated by photoelectrons
◦ quenching is used to prevent process
No proportional relationship between energy of incident radiation and number
of ionizations detected
Geiger discharge
 DESIGN FEATURES
External quenching
Fill gas  Positive ions created will be
• Regulation of voltage
neutralised atfor
theacathode
fixed period of time
surface
after each pulse
after .
combining with an e
 Nobel gases are used  Energy liberated during this process :
 No electro-ve gases E= I.E – Work function
 Pressure is kept low
Internal
 Ifquenching
this energy is greater than the work
function ,it is possible for another
• Quenching gas, complex molecular structure e -

to emerge from the surface.

• Mechanism – charge transfer
 This would give us a false count and
QUENCHING • Halogen, ethyl alcohol
increase the dead time of the
detector.
Timing features
DEAD TIME –time from the initial pulse until
another pulse can be produced by the
detector.
-Dead time occurs because of the effect that
the large number of positive ions have on the
voltage potential across the detector
 RESOLVING TIME-time from the initial
measured pulse until another pulse can be
measured by the electronics
RECOVRY TIME-time from the initial full size
pulse to the next full size pulse produced by
the detector.
 ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Relatively independent of pressure and Response is not related to energy
temp effects cause of the magnitude of the deposited ,can not be used to measure the
pulse dose
More sensitive to low energy and low Large recovery time this limits the use in
intensity radiation than prop or ion chamber extremely high radiation fields
Gm counter require less highly regulated Has limited life because of quenching gas
power supplies as the pulse repetition rate is
Detection efficiency for photon is very less
measured and not the pulse height
Comparison of gas filled detectors
Properties Ionization Proportional GM counter
chamber counter

Operating voltage 100-300 300-800 1000-1400

(volts)

Type of radiation To measure the low energy X rays It can detect the
that can be gamma ray alpha particle , alpha , beta
detected exposure , survey beta particle, particles , low
meter neutrons can be energy and high
detect and energy X rays but
differentiate d can’t differentiate
Use in In pulse mode can low energy X rays Can’t be used
spectroscopy be used for
spectroscopy
Dead time 50-100 micro sec.
- -

Amplification 1 104 - 105 109 - 1010

factor
Scintillation detectors
Emit light when irradiated
Excitation ◦ promptly (<10-8s)
◦ fluorescence
◦ delayed (>10-8s)
◦ phosphorescence
Emission of
Can be
visible light ◦ liquid
◦ solid
Collection of ◦ gas
light to form a ◦ organic
signal ◦ inorganic
 Scintillator Properties

A large number of different scintillation crystals exist for a variety of

applications.
Some important characteristics of scintillators are:
Scintillator
◦ Density and atomic number (Z)
◦ Light output (wavelength + intensity)
PMT tube
◦ Decay time (duration of the scintillation light pulse)
◦ Mechanical and optical properties
◦ Cost

http://www.scionixusa.com/pages/navbar/scin_crystals.html
 ORGANIC SCINTILLATOR

FEATURES
MECHANISM
EFFICENCY =fraction of all incident particle
energy converted into light
QUENCHING=rad less de excitation
In all most all organic scintillators excitation
energy undergoes substantial transfer from
molecule to molecule before de excitation
TYPES OF ORGANIC SCINTILLAOR
1. Pure organic
2. Liquid organic solutions
3. Plastic scintillators
4. Thin film scintillators
FEATURES,EXAPMLES
• Anthracene (oldest)
• Stilbene
Fragile and difficult to obtain in large sizes
• Organic scintillators + solvent
• Large volume detectors can be created
• More resistant to rad damage owing to
lq state
• Polymerization of lq scn.
• Styrene, polyvinyltoluene + organic scint
• Can be frabricated in different shapes
and sizes
• //particle physics measurement
• Thin films of plastic scint
• Serve as transmission detectors
• Can be placed directly on th efface of
pmt tube
 INORGANIC SCINTILLATOR

FEATURES
Conduction band , valence band ,
activator site (impurities).
MECHANISM
e hole pair production
Moving of e to conduction band
Recombining of e at activator sight
resulting in emission of photon in the
visible region.
TYPES FEATURES

1.NaI(Tl) Excellent light yield, standard for routine g spectroscopy , poor res at higher temp

2.CsI(Tl) and CsI(Na) Large g abs coefficient/size comp to NaI, used in space application , less brittle, less
hygroscopic ,
Geophysical, general radiation detection

1. BGO Major ad large density (7.13g/cm3) and z, rugged in nature, low light yield, no long
decay compo hence no after glow,
Costly,
Particle physics, geophysical research, PET, anti-Compton spectrometers

2.CdWO4 Yield is 40% of NaI(tl) ,high p and z, used for g ray spectroscopy, low decay time , Very
high density, low afterglow, radiation hard, DC measurement of X-rays (high intensity),
readout with photodiodes, Computerized Tomography (CT)
BLOCK DIAGRAM
Photomultiplier Tube
Predicted response functions
A. SMALL SIZE

 FEATURES
 Full energy peak
 Compton continuum
 Double escape peak
B. VERY LARGE SIZE

 FEATURES
 Full energy peak
 C. INTEMIDEATE SIZE

FEATURES
Full peak
Double /Single escape peak
Multiple comp scatt.
Compton valley
Neutron Detectors
They are detected through nuclear reaction that results in prompt energetic
charged particles such as alpha, protons etc.
Combination of a target to carry out conversion + a conventional detector
TYPES OF NEUTRON
1. Thermal ( 0.4 eV)
2. Intermediate ( 0.4 – 200 keV)
3. Fast Neutrons (200 keV- 20MeV)
4. Relativistic (> 20MeV)
SLOW NEUTRON DETECTION
 BORON ACTIVATION
When slow n strike an B-10 atom , an
alpha Is emitted.
This particle in turn produces ionization
which can be measured.
A detector lined with B10 or filled with
boron triflouride,BF3,these detectors are
usually operated in the ion chamber
region or proportional region. Boron
activation is the most commonly used
method for slow n
FISSION CHAMBERS
A SLOW N WILL CAUSE AN U 235
TO FISSION, with 2 fission
fragments produced having high KE
and causing ion to the material
they pass through
Hence by coating one of the
electrodes of ionization chamber
with a thin layer of enriched
uranium 235, a detector sensitive
to slow n can be formed
 SCINTILLATION ACTIVATION FOILS

SCINTILLATION DETECTORS CAN BE designed to  Various material have the ability to

detect slow neutron by incorporating boron or
lithium in the scintillator crystal.
The neutrons will interact with boron or lithium
atom to produce an alpha particle which then
produces ionization and scintillation
absorb n of specific E and become
radioactive through the radiative
capture process
 By measuring the radioactivity of thin
foils such as gold, Ag or indium we can
determine the amount of neutron to
which the foils were exposed
 Fast neutron detection
PROTON RECOIL
CAHMBER (ion/prop)

When fast n undergo elastic scattering with hydrogen atoms ,

they frequently strike the h atom with enough fore to knock the
proton nucleus away from the the orbiting e
The energetic proton produces ionization which can be measured
 Most devices for measuring fast neutrons use an ionization
detector operated in either the ion chamber or proportional region
 THERMALIZATION

 Another technique is to convert fast neutron into slow neutron and

then measure the slow neutrons
 A sheet of cadmium is placed on the outside of the detector to absorb
any slow n
A thickness of paraffin or another good moderator isis placed under the
cadmium to convert the fast neutrons to slow ones.
| One of the slow neutron detectors is positioned inside the paraffin to
measure the
| slow neutrons, thereby measuring the original fast neutrons.
Conclusion
GAS FILLED DETECTORS –Have a wide range of application and depending on the
type of applications gas filled detectors can be operated in different regions.
eg. GM counters are more sensitive so are used as area monitors .
Ionization chambers are used for dosimetric application as the signal
produced is proportional to the dose rate.
SCINTILLATION DETECTORS – They are mainly used for radiation spectroscopy .
NEUTRON DETECTORS – By providing apt material for their interaction both gas
filled and scintillation detectors can be used for their detection.
REFRENCES
Glenn F. Knoll, Radiation Detection and Measurement, John Wiley & Sons.
Techniques for nuclear and particle physics experiments , W.R Leo
The Physics of Radiation Therapy , F.M. Khan
THANK YOU