Radioactivity and its laws and

therapeutic and diagnostic

uses of radioactive sources

Presented by: Navneet Kaur

Moderator : Mr. Gaurav Trivedi
 RADIOACTIVITY
 It is a spontaneous process by which an unstable
parent nucleus decays into a more stable daughter
nucleus that may or may not be stable.

 The unstable daughter nucleus will decay further

until a stable nuclear configuration is reached.

 This radiation can be in form of particles,

electromagnetic radiation or both.
 HISTORY
• Natural radioactivity was discovered by Henri
Becquerel in 1896.
• Artificial radioactivity was discovered by Irene
Joliot Curie and Frederic Joliot in 1934.
 UNITS OF RADIOACTIVITY
• SI unit - Becquerel.
o 1Bq=1dps
• Standard unit - Curie
o 1 Curie = activity of 1 gram of Radium
o 1 Ci = 3.7×1010 dps
• Rutherford (rd)= activity of a sample which has 106
disintegrations per sec.
o 1Ci=3.7×104 rd
 Nuclear Instability
• for heavier nuclei to be stable they
need to have more neutrons than
protons.
nuclei which are unstable lie either
side of the stability line.

nuclei with too many protons are to

the right of the stability line and
become more stable by emitting a
beta+ particle when a proton converts
into a neutron

• nuclei with too few protons are to the

left of the stability line and become
more stable by emitting a beta-
(b–)particle when a neutron converts
into a proton
 Odd and even no. of Nucleons
• Nuclei with even no. of protons and neutrons are most
stable.
• Nuclei with odd no of protons and odd no of neutrons
are least stable.
• Nuclei with odd no of protons and even no of neutrons
and nuclei with odd no of neutrons and even no of
protons are approx same in no.
 Mass Defect
• The difference between the sum of the masses of the
nucleons constituting the nucleus and the rest mass
of the nucleus is called mass defect.

• Δm=Zmp + (A-Z)Mn-M
 Binding Energy
• It is the measure of the stability of the nucleus.

• It is the energy needed to hold or bind the nucleons

together inside the nucleus .

• It is the energy equivalent of the mass defect.

• B=Δmc2

• B=[ZMP+(A-Z)Mn-M]c2
 Cont.

 If B.E/ Nucleon is higher the nuclei will be more

stable .
 It is small for light and heavier nuclei i.e they are less
stable .
 For mass no 2 to 20 there are sharp peaks for mass
no. 4,8,12,16,20.
 It has broad maximum value in range of mass no
40to120 and is max. for Fe-56.
 Fundamental Laws of Radioactivity
(displacement laws)

1. Of all known radioactive transformations either an α

or β particle is emitted .
2. When an α particle is emitted a new atom is formed
whose mass no is less than four units and atomic no
by two units of parent atom.
3. When a β particle is emitted new atom has atomic
no one greater than the parent atom and mass no is
unchanged.
 Radioactive decay theory

• Every radio active element is constantly

disintegrating into fresh radio active products with
the emission of α,β or gamma rays.
• The new products have entirely new radioactive and
chemical properties.
• The reaction is spontaneous and can neither be
accelerated nor be retarded.
• The rate of disintegration is not affected by external
factors like temperature and pressure.
 Laws of Radioactive decay
• Given by Soddy and Rutherford in 1902.
• The rate of disintegration at any instant is directly
proportional to the no. of atoms present at that
instant .
• -dN α N
dt
• dN = -λN (λ is decay constant)
dt
On integration it comes as N=N0e-λt.
• So in radioactive decay
no of radioactive nuclei
decrease exponentially
with time.
• λ is the radioactive
constant .
• As activity is A= λN
• It is also exponential in
nature.
 Half life and average life of an atom
• HALF LIFE-time in which quantity of radioactive
substance reduces to half of its original value.
• T=0.693/λ

• AVERAGE LIFE-ratio of total life time of all the

radioactive atoms to the total no of such atoms
present.
• It is reciprocal of λ.
 Modes Of Radioactive Decay
Various modes of radio active decay are
 Decay by β− emission
 Decay by (β−, γ ) emission
 Isomeric transitions and internal conversion
 Electron capture and (EC, γ ) decay
 Decay by (β+) and (β+, γ ) emission
 Competitive β+ and EC decay
 Decay by α emission and nuclear fission
 Decay by β− emission
• z
 Decay by (β−, γ ) emission

• In some cases, decay by β− emission results in a

daughter nucleus that is in an excited or metastable
state
• If an excited state is formed, the daughter nucleus
promptly decays to a more stable nuclear
arrangement by the emission of a γ ray This
sequential decay process is called (β−, γ) decay
• examples of (β−, γ) decay are the decay of
radionuclide Xe-133,I-131 ,Cs-137 etc.
 Isomeric Transitions and Internal
Conversion
• decay of the meta stable or isomeric state by the emission of
a γ ray is called an isomeric transition
• E.g. Decay of Tc-99m
• alternative to γ-ray emission is internal conversion
• In this process, the nucleus decays by transferring energy to
an orbital electron, which is ejected instead of the γ ray The
ejected electron is called a conversion electron
• electron usually originate from one of the inner shells (K or L),
provided that the γ-ray energy is sufficient to overcome the
binding energy of that shell
• The energy excess above the binding energy is imparted to
the conversion electron as kinetic energy.
• The orbital vacancy created by internal
conversion subsequently is filled by an outer-
shell electron, accompanied by emission of
characteristic x rays or Auger electrons
 Comparison b/w internal conversion and
β− decay
• Internal conversion, like β− decay, results in the
emission of electrons
• in β− decay the electron originates from the nucleus,
whereas in internal conversion it originates from an
electron orbit
• β− particles are emitted with a continuous spectrum
of energies, whereas conversion electrons have a
discrete series of energies determined by the
differences between the γ-ray energy and orbital
electron-binding energies
 Electron capture and (EC, γ ) decay

•
Diagrammatic Representation of electron capture
• EC decay results frequently in a daughter nucleus
that is in an excited or metastable state. Thus γ rays
(or conversion electrons) may also be emitted. This is
called (EC, γ) decay.

• Medically important EC and (EC, γ) radionuclides

listed in include Co-57, Ga-67, In-111, I-123, I-125,
and Tl-201.
Decay by (β+) and (β+, γ ) emission
• a proton is converted to a neutron and the process creates a positron
and an neutrino

• After ejection from the nucleus, it loses its kinetic energy in collisions
with atoms of the surrounding matter and comes to rest, usually within a
few millimeters of the site of its origin in body tissues
• the positron and an electron momentarily form an “atom” called
positronium
• The positron then combines with the negative electron in an
annihilation reaction, in which their masses are converted into energy .
The mass-energy equivalent of each particle is 0.511 MeV.

• This energy appears in the form of two 0.511-MeV annihilation photons,

which leave the site of the annihilation event in nearly exact opposite
directions (180 degrees apart).
• β+ emission may leave the daughter nucleus in an
excited state, and thus additional γ rays may also be
emitted called (β+, γ) decay
• Positron emitters are useful in nuclear medicine
because two photons are generated per nuclear
decay event.
• the precise directional relationship between the
annihilation photons permits the use of novel
“coincidence-counting” techniques
• Medically important pure β+ radionuclide include N-
13 and O-15
 Competitive β+ And EC Decay
• Positron emission and EC have the same effect on the parent
nucleus. Both are isobaric decay modes that decrease atomic
number by one. i.e. they are alternative means for reaching the
same endpoint
• β+ decay occurs more frequently among lighter elements,
whereas EC is more frequent among heavier elements
• This is because in heavy elements orbital electrons tend to be
closer to the nucleus and are more easily captured
• Some radio nuclides that can decay by either mode. e.g. F-
18 , 3% of the nuclei decay by EC and 97% decay by β+ emission.
• Radio nuclides of medical interest that undergo competitive (β+,
EC) decay include C-11 and F-18.
 Decay by α emission and nuclear fission

• Both of these decay modes occur primarily among very

heavy elements
• In decay by α-particle emission, the nucleus ejects an α
particle, which consists of two neutrons and two protons
(essentially a helium nucleus)

• The α particle is emitted with kinetic energy usually between

4 and 8 MeV.
• An (α, γ) radionuclide of interest in nuclear medicine is Am-
241. It is used in encapsulated form as a source of 60-keV γ
rays for instrument calibration and testing.
• Nuclear fission is the spontaneous fragmentation of a
very heavy nucleus into two lighter nuclei.
• a few (two or three) fission neutrons are also
ejected.
• The distribution of nuclear mass between the two
product nuclei varies from one decay to the next.
• The fission process is of interest in nuclear medicine
because the fission fragment nuclei usually are
radioactive and, if chemically separable from the
other products, can be used as medical tracers
• Also, the neutrons are used to produce radioactive
materials by neutron activation
 Radioactive Series
• A radioactive element decays by emitting α or β
particles to new element and it decays until a stable
end product is finally produced.
• This successive disintegration process results in a
radioactive series.
• 4 known series :
 THORIUM SERIES (4n)
 NEPTUNIUM SERIES(4n+1)
 URANIUM SERIES(4n+2)
 ACTINIUM SERIES(4n+3)
 THORIUM SERIES
 Parent element is thorium 232.
 End product is isotope of lead called thorium D with
A=208.
 NEPTUNIUM SERIES
• Parent atom is Pu-241.
• End product is Bi -209
 URANIUM SERIES
• Parent element is uranium -238.
 ACTINIUM SERIES
• Parent atom is Proactinium-231.
• End product is isotope of lead with A=207.
 Laws of successive disintegration
• It is a law of radioactive equilibrium.
• A radioactive substance disintegrates into new nucleus
until some equilibrium is reached with some stable end
point.
• Let A decays to B which further decays to C.
N0=No. of initial atoms in A at t=0
0=No. of initial atoms of B at time t=0
N1= No. of atoms in A at time =t
N2= No. of atoms in B at time =t
λ1 and λ2 are disintegration constants of A and B
N2 = λ1 Nᵒ * [e- λ1 t - e- λ2 t]/λ2 - λ1
 SECULAR OR PERMANENT EQUILIBRIUM
• If T1>>T2 and λ1 << λ2 .
• In this the rate of decay of any product is equal to the rate of
its production from the previous chain of the nucleus.
• λ2N2=λ1N1
 TRANSIENT EQUILIBRIUM
• In this half life of parent is significantly longer than
the product daughter nuclei.
• λ1 << λ2 but λ1 is not equal to 0.
N1=λ2-λ1
N2 λ2
 USES OF RADIOISOTOPES

THERAPEUTIC DIAGNOSTIC


TRACER STUDIES
TELETHERAPY NUCLEAR
BRACHYTHERAPY
MEDICINE
NUCLEAR MEDICINE
IMAGING
 Ideal tele-therapy sources
It should have following properties:
• High specific activity
• High average photon energy
• High exposure rate
• Long half life
• Easy availability
 Sources used in Tele-therapy
RADIUM-226

CESIUM-137

COBALT-60
 RADIUM-226
• It is mainly α emitter and small part of it is decayed into
gamma.
• Has average energy of 0.83Mev.
• Half life =1626years.
• Specific activity=0.98(Ci/g).
• HVL=12mm of lead
DISADVANTAGES
• High cost
• Low specific activity
• Large self absorption
• Low gamma ray constant
• Limited availability
• Gaseous daughter product
 CESIUM-137
 Half life=30 years
• It is beta and gamma emitter
• Gamma ray energy=0.662Mev
• Exposure rate=3.26
• Specific activity=50
• It is not widely used
because of its low specific
activity and low gamma ray
constant.
 COBALT-60
• It decays into beta particles and gamma photons of
energies 1.17 and 1.33Mev.
• It is produced by neutron bombardment with stable
Co-59.
• Half life =5.26 years.
• Specific activity=200Ci/g.
• Exposure rate= 1.30 Rm2/Ci-h
ADVANTAGE OVER OTHER TELERHERAPY SOURCES
 High specific activity
 Greater radiation output
 High average photon energy
DECAY SCHEME OF COBALT-60
 BRACHYTHERAPY SOURCES
• Properties :
 Should not be in powder form
 Half life- small for permanent implants and medium
for temporary implants.
 Medium gamma ray constant
 High specific activity
 Stable daughter product
 RADIUM -226

• It was the first source to be used clinically.

• Platinum filters of 0.5mm used to absorb all the
alpha and most of the beta.
• It is replaced nowdays because of its disadvantages
as:
 Radon gas is soluble in tissue
 High energy not required for brachytherapy
 Heavy rectal shielding for intracavitary app.
 Source size is bigger because of low specific activity
 Its daughter products are also alpha emitters
 Cs -137& Co-60
• Cs 137 is a fission • Co-60 is produced by
product. activation of stable
• It is used in intracavitary istotope of cobalt.
&interstitial BT. • HVL in lead =10mm
• It is a substitute for • Mostly gamma emitter
radium.
• Two energies of gamma
• HVL=6.5 mm of lead so it
• Mostly used in bead form
require less shielding.
• Activity is high so used in
• Monoenergetic gamma
HDR brachytherapy.
ray source.
• Source is in form of
spherical and cylindrical.
 Ir- 192
• Produced by neutron activation of stable Ir191.
• Half life= 73.83 days.
• HVL in lead=4.5mm.
• It decays by EC ,β+ followed by γ ray emission.
• Effective photon energy=0.37Mev.
• Used in forms of wire, hairpins , seeds.
 Nuclear medicine therapeutic sources
P-32 : used in bone palliative therapy .
energy=1.70 Mev .
half life=14.3 days
decay by β- emission.

I- 131 : used in treatment

of thyroid disorder.
half life =8 days
 Continued..
 Sm -153: beta emitter.
• half life = 1.9 days .
• gamma photons energy= 103Kev.

 Sr-89: half life =50.6 days .

• decays with emission of beta particle.
• used in treatment of bone metastatic cancer.
 Diagnostic uses of Radio-nuclides
• These are used as tracers in diagnosis.
• TRACERS- small amounts of radio nuclides are used
to study internal organs.
• Nuclear medicine gives diagnostic information by
imaging biological processes.
• It provide metabolic or functional imaging of specific
organs and give information of their alterations
during disease and disorders.
Properties of sources used for diagnosis
• Suitable half life not too short not much long.

• sufficient gamma ray energy.

• Radioisotope should be stable with linked

pharmaceutical.

• It should not be alpha and beta emitter.

• Decay product should not be gas.

 PET
• PET is positron emission tomography
• Radio nuclides which are positron emitters are used
for this eg . F-18.
• It provides functional imaging of organs.
• Positron anhilates by combining with an electron .
• As a result two photons of energy 0.511Mev are
produced in opposite direction and these are
detected by gamma camera.
 Thallium -201
• Half life =73 hrs.
• Produced in cyclotron
• Used for myocardial perfusion
• Used as intravenously.
• Used for detection of hyperparathyroidism and brain
tumors .

DISADVANTAGES:
 Poor radiation output
 Expensive
 Gallium -67
• Half life=78.3 hrs.

• Gamma ray energy= 93Kev,185 Kev,300Kev.

• Used in evaluation and presence of many lung

diseases as tumors.

• Different tumors are detected by us of this as

lymphoma ,head and neck cancers.
 F-18
• Half life=109.77min.
• Mainly synthesized into FDG
for use in PET.
• Used in bone scintigraphy.

 Advantage:
• Short half life.
• Positron emitter.
 Technetium-99m
The most common radioisotope
for diagnosis, accounting for over
80% of scans.
Half life=6hrs.
 Used to image the skeleton and
heart muscle in particular, but also
for brain, thyroid, lungs (perfusion
and ventilation), liver, spleen,
kidney (structure and filtration
rate), gall bladder, bone marrow,
salivary glands, heart blood pool,
infection and numerous specialised
medical studies
 Indium-111
Half life=2.8 days.

Used for specialist

diagnostic studies, e.g.
brain studies, infection and
colon transit studies.

 Also for locating blood

clots, inflammation and rare
cancers.