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 Government regulations require it for certain
products with standards of identity (e.g.% fat and
moisture in meat products).
 Nutritional Labeling regulations require it.
 Quality Control- monitor product quality for
consistency.
 Research and Development- for the development of
new products and improving existing products.

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 Chemical Composition – water, fat, carbohydrate,
protein etc
 Physical Properties- Rheological or stability
 Sensory Properties- Flavor, mouth-feel, color,
texture etc.

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 Official Samples
 Raw Materials
 Process Control Samples
 Finished Products

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 Food consists primarily of water( moisture), fat
(or oil), carbohydrate, protein and ash
(minerals).
 Since food consists of these 5 components, it is
important that we understand how these
components are measured.

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COMPONENT % Water %Carbohydrates %Protein % Fat % Min/Vit
Milk 87.3 5.0 3.5 3.5 0.7
Beef 60.0 0 17..5 22.0 0.9
Chicken 66.0 0 20.2 12.6 1.0
Fish 81.8 0 16.4 0.5 1..3
Cheese 37.0 2.0 25.0 31.0 5.0
Cereal grains 10-14 58-72 8-13 2-5 0.5-3.0
78.0 18.9 2.0 0.1 1.0
Potatoes

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 pH refers to the relative amounts of acid and base in
a product.
 It is scientifically defined as the negative log of the
hydrogen ion concentration.
 pH ranges from 0 to 14 with pH of 7 being neutral.
pH values below 7 are considered acids and pH
values above 7 are basic or alkaline.
 pH is generally determined with a pH meter although
litmus paper can also be used.

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 Moisture or water is by far the most common
component in foods ranging in content from 60 –
95%.
 The two most common moisture considerations
in foods is that of total moisture content and
water activity.

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 The total moisture content of foods is generally
determined by some form of drying method
whereby all the moisture is removed by heat and
moisture is determined as the weight lost.

 % water = wet weight of sample-dry weight of sample

wet weight of sample

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 Water Activity (Aw) is the amount of free
water in a sample that is not bond and
therefore free for microbial growth, enzyme
and vitamin decomposition and can reduce
color, taste and flavor stability.

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  Foods
 Aw Microorganism Meat, fish, sausage, milk
1.0-0.95 Bacteria
Cheese, cured meat , fruit juice conc.
0.95-0.91 Bacteria
Fermented sausages (salami), dry
cheeses, margarine
0.91-0.87 Yeasts
Juice conc, syrups, flour, fruit cakes,
honey, jellies, preserves
0.65 Molds

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 Proteins are made up of amino acids.
 Amino acids are the building blocks of protein.
 Nitrogen the most distinguishing element versus other
food components (carbohydrates, fats etc)
 Nitrogen ranges in proteins : 13.4 - 19.1%
 Non-protein nitrogen: free amino acids, nucleic acids,
amino sugars, some vitamins, etc.
 Total organic nitrogen = protein + non-protein nitrogen

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 Kjeldahl – measures the amount of nitrogen in a
sample.
 Lowry- measures the tyrosine/tryptophan
residues of proteins.

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 Crude protein content
 Johan Kjeldahl (1883) developed the basic
process
 Principle: total organic N released from sample
and absorbed by acid
› Digestion: sulfuric acid + catalyst
› Neutralization and distillation; Sodium hydroxide
› Titration; Hydrochloric acid or H2SO4

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Digestion
Sulfuric acid

ProteinHeat, catalyst (NH4)2SO4

(ammonium sulfate)

Protein N  NH4+ + H2SO4  (NH4)2SO4

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Neutralization and distillation

(NH ) SO
4 2 4 + 2NaOH  2NH3 + Na2SO4 + 2H2O

-
NH3 + H3BO3  NH4+ : H2BO3 + H3BO3
(boric acid) (ammonium-borate
complex)
excess
Color change

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› Titration (direct titration)
-
H2BO3 + H+  H3BO3
(H2SO4)

› Calculation

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 Advantages:
› applicable to any foods
› simple, inexpensive
› accurate, official method for crude protein content
 Disadvantages:
› measuring total N not just protein N
› time consuming
› corrosive reagents

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 Fats refers to lipids, fats and oils.
 The most distinguishing feature of fats versus
other components ( carbohydrates, protein etc) is
their solubilty. Fats are soluble in organic
solvents but insoluble in water.

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 Solvent selection
› Ideal solvent
 high solvent power for lipids
 low solvent for other components
 easy to evaporate
 low boiling point
 nonflammable
 nontoxic
 good penetration into sample
 single component
 inexpensive
 non-hygroscopic 27
 Common Solvents
› Ethyl ether - best solvent for fat extraction, more
expensive, explosion, fire hazard, hygroscopic
› Petroleum ether - cheaper, more hydrophobic, less
hygroscopic
› Hexane - soybean oil extraction

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 Extraction Methods
Continuous – Goldfinch
Semi-Continuous- Soxhlet
Discontinuous- Mojonnier
 Instrumental Methods
Dielectric
Infrared
Ultrasound

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 Continuous extraction: Goldfish method
› Principle: Solvent continuously flowing over the
sample with no build-up
› Advantages: fast, efficient.
› Disadvantages: channeling – not complete
extraction.

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 Semicontinuous extraction: Soxhlet
method
› Principle: Solvent building up in
extraction chamber for 5-10 min
before siphoning back to boiling flask.
› Advantages: no channeling
› Disadvantages: time consuming

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 Dielectric method
› Principle: low electric current from fat
 Infrared method
› Principle: Fat absorbs infrared energy at a wavelength
of 5.73 m
 Ultrasound method
› Principle: sound velocity increases with increasing fat
content

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 Next to water, carbohydrates are the most
abundant food component
 %carbohydrate=100% - (H2O + ash + fat + protein)
 Types of carbohydrates include;
› monosaccharide: glucose, fructose, galactose
› disaccharide: sucrose, lactose, maltose
› oligosaccharids: raffinose
› polysaccharide: starch, cellulose

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 Ash: total mineral content; inorganic residue
remaining after ignition or complete oxidation of
organic matter
 Minerals:
› Macro minerals (>100 mg/day)
 Ca, P, Na ,K, Mg, Cl, S
› Trace minerals (mg/day)
 Fe, I, Zn, Cu, Cr, Mn, Mo, F, Se, Si
› Ultra trace minerals
 Va, Ni, Sn, B
› Toxic mineral
 lead, mercury, cadmium, aluminum
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Wheat flour, whole grain 1.6%
Macaroni, dry, enriched 0.7%
Milk, whole, fluid 0.7%
Butter, with salt 2.1%
Apple, raw with skin 0.3%
Banana, raw 0.8%
Egg, whole, raw 0.9%
Hamburger, regular, plain 1.7%

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› Dry ashing
 high temperature
› Wet ashing
 oxidizing agent and/or acid
› Low-temperature plasma ashing
 dry ashing in partial vacuum at low temperature

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 Principles
› High temperature (>525C) overnight (12-18 hr)
› total mineral content
 Instrumentation
› Muffle furnace
› Crucible
 quartz
 porcelain
 steel
 nickel
 platinum

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1. 5-10g pretreated sample into a crucible
2. Ignite crucible to constant weight at ~550C for
12-18 hr
3. Cool in desiccator
4. Weigh cooled crucible
wt after ashing - crucible wt
% ash (db) = Sample wt  solid%/100
 100

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 Advantages
› safe and easy
› no chemical
› many samples handled at one time
› resultant ash for further mineral analysis
 Disadvantages
› loss of volatiles
› interaction
› long time and expensive equipment

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 While chemical properties measures the chemical
components of food such as water, protein, fat,
carbohydrates, the physical properties determine
how the chemical properties and processing
ultimately effect the color and texture of foods.

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 Physical properties include;
Color
Texture
Viscosity (liquids)
Texture analysis machines
Sensory panels
Trained
Consumer

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 More subjective color determination systems
include;
- Paint color match pages
-The Pantone Matching System.
- Actual photos of finished food products

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 The methods of measuring the texture of foods
can be roughing divided into those used for
liquids (viscosity) versus those used for more
solid foods.

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 Viscosity: a key property of liquids and a measure of the
resistance to flow.
 More energy required to make a viscous fluid flow than a
non-viscous fluid.
 The viscosity of a solution increases non-linearly with
polymer concentration.
 The properties of the solution are conventionally split into
three regions:

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 Viscosity measurement by sensing the torque
required to rotate a spindle at constant speed
while immersed in the sample fluid.
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 A simple, dependable instrument which determines
sample consistency by measuring the distance which a
sample of material flows under its own weight
 The unit is constructed of stainless steel and is
equipped with two leveling screws and a level.
The gate is spring operated and held
by a positive release
mechanism, permitting instantaneous flow
of sample. The trough is graduated in
0.5cm divisions.
 Used extensively in the food industry
for jams, jellies, tomato paste, ketchup,
condensed soup and other highly
viscous products. 49
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 Trained Sensory Panels – a few well trained people
that characterize flavor, texture and odor versus
like/dislike,
 Consumer Panels- usually consist of 200 plus people
who determine like/dislike, desirability etc.
 Additional detailed information on sensory panels
can be found in the module “Sensory Evaluation of
Foods;

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THANKS

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