Colonial Legacy

John P. Burns, PPA/HKU

21 January 2022
Characteristics of colonialism…
Colonialism defined….
• A relationship of domination between an indigenous majority and a
minority of foreign invaders.
• Decisions affecting the lives of the colonized people are made in
pursuit of the colonial power’s own interests.
• ‘Colonized people are thus robbed of their historical line of development.’
• The colonizers are convinced of their own superiority and of their
ordained mandate to rule.
• Racial hegemony and ethnocentric arrogance.

• Osterhammel, 2005, 16-7.

Path dependence…
• Policy choices made when an institution is being formed, or when a
policy is initiated, have a continuing and largely determinate influence
over the policy far into the future.
• Change is possible but requires a good deal of political pressure

• Factors facilitating change:

• Exogenous factors: Critical junctures (wars, natural disasters, revolutions,
regime change etc.) provide opportunities for change.
• Endogenous factors: New leadership, new policies
• Source: Peters, 2019.
Argument
1. To a significant extent, HK maintained its internal colonial power
structure until 2020. Only then did the decolonization begin in
earnest, led by the CCP.
2. Post-1997 HKSAR’s weak state stymied attempts to decolonize
earlier.
3. There are at least 4 elements to HK’s colonial power structure:
a. Political/legal institutions
b. Economic institutions
c. Religious/educational institutions
d. Civil service
 The colonial period: Critical junctures…

1841 1941 1945 1949 1997 2020

Critical junctures for HK
• Colonial period
• 1841 British take HK by force
• 1941 Japanese take HK by force; expel British
• 1945 British allowed to re-occupy HK
• 1949 PRC founded/strong HK state
• 1972 (HK removed from UN decolonization list; UK agrees)
• 1967 (Riots put down)
• 1970s-80s (rapid economic growth)
• 1997 HKSAR founded/weak HK state
• 2003 (Central authorities tighten scrutiny)
• 2014 (St Council White Paper… ‘comprehensive jurisdiction’)
• 2019 (CCP Central Committee decision, 31 Oct)
• Central authority begins decolonization of HK (re-establish strong HK state)
• 2020
http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/2019-11/05/content_5449023.htm

中共中央关于坚持和完善中国特色社会主义制度推进国家治理体系和治理能力现代化若干重大问题的决定

（ 2019 年 10 月 31 日中国共产党第十九届中央委员会第四次全体会议通过）

（一）全面准确贯彻“一国两制”、“港人治港”、“澳人治澳”、高度自治的方针。坚持依法治港治澳，维护宪法和
基本法确定的宪制秩序，把坚持“一国”原则和尊重“两制”差异、维护中央对特别行政区全面管治权和保障特别行
政区高度自治权、发挥祖国内地坚强后盾作用和提高特别行政区自身竞争力结合起来。完善特别行政区同宪法和
基本法实施相关的制度和机制，坚持以爱国者为主体的“港人治港”、“澳人治澳”，提高特别行政区依法治理能力
和水平。
（二）健全中央依照宪法和基本法对特别行政区行使全面管治权的制度。完善中央对特别行政区行政长官和主要
官员的任免制度和机制、全国人大常委会对基本法的解释制度，依法行使宪法和基本法赋予中央的各项权力。建
立健全特别行政区维护国家安全的法律制度和执行机制，支持特别行政区强化执法力量。健全特别行政区行政长
官对中央政府负责的制度，支持行政长官和特别行政区政府依法施政。完善香港、澳门融入国家发展大局、同内
地优势互补、协同发展机制，推进粤港澳大湾区建设，支持香港、澳门发展经济、改善民生，着力解决影响社会
稳定和长远发展的深层次矛盾和问题。加强对香港、澳门社会特别是公职人员和青少年的宪法和基本法教育、国
情教育、中国历史和中华文化教育，增强香港、澳门同胞国家意识和爱国精神。坚决防范和遏制外部势力干预港
澳事务和进行分裂、颠覆、渗透、破坏活动，确保香港、澳门长治久安。

Description from press conference:

二是完善中央对特别行政区行政长官和主要官员的任免制度和机制、全国人大常委会对基本法的解释制度，
依法行使宪法和基本法赋予中央的各项权力 .
http://www.xinhuanet.com/mrdx/2019-11/06/c_138532143.htm
HK: strong or weak state?
• Post-WWII HK state relatively strong vis-à-vis civil society, business
• Sources of strength: CCP victory on the mainland; economic boom (1970s, 1980s);
reducing corruption
• Evidence: Industry policy (Ngo, 1999)

• Post-1997 HKSAR state relatively weak vis-à-vis civil society, business

• Sources of weakness:
• Basic Law (elements of separation of powers; promise of universal suffrage; strategic ambiguity
[references to ICCPR, etc.])
• British ‘timebomb’ (expanded franchise)

• Consequences: (raised expectations [e.g., competitive elections with consequences];

failed attempts to decolonize)
Endogenous change: the
late colonial ‘timebomb’
• Short-term
• Competitive elections for Legco (from 1991)
• Bill of Rights Ordinance, Cap. 383 (1991)
• Universalist understanding of ‘rights’

• Longer-term
• Education (Western church-managed)
• Media
• RTHK as a public broadcaster
• Relative autonomy
• Result: Public expectations beyond 1997
The colonial legacy
• Political/legal institutions (privileged business)
• Economy(empowered business; monopoly; low taxes)
• Education (language; curriculum [failed to foster national identity])
• Civil service (trustees, not agents; local; lack of national identity)
Political institutions
• Colonial institutions
• Privileged business (esp. commerce/banking)
• Cooptation/FCs
• Restricted non-elite participation (‘non-democratic’, Chan, 1997)
• Prevented emergence of political leaders (‘administrative absorption of
politics’)

• Decolonization without independence dilemma (Lau, 1987)

BL on political/legal institutions
• Art 43: Control through CE/Principal Officials, the ‘commanding
heights’
• Art 68: Legco, ultimate aim ‘elections’, ‘universal suffrage’
• Annex II: FCs continue; split voting

• Art 8: Laws previously in force to continue

• Art 81: Judicial system previously practiced to continue

• Safety mechanism: NPCSC interpretations

Our government, mostly civil servants, transitioned 1997
A partially elected
legislature that
1. Dominated by
business interests;
2. May not take
power, only
support or
oppose….

Total Members: 70
Geographical constituencies: 35
Functional constituencies: 35
(e.g., banking, commerce,
professions, etc.)
Political/legal institutions, reform attempts
• Security
• Art 23, 2003 failed

• Participation ‘competitive elections’

• 2010 CCP approves 5 district council ‘super seats’ (broadened franchise),
implemented
• 2014 CCP approves ‘universal suffrage’ for CE beginning in 2017, failed
The economy
• Colonial government
• Privileged British interests (Chan, 1997)
• Protected monopoly (gov’t-business ‘collusion’, Chan, 1997)
• Privileged commerce/banking at expense of industry (Ngo, 1999)
• Used law to control labor (‘closely monitored, systematically intimidated’, Ngo, 1999)

• Post-1997 ‘pro-business’ economy unchanged

• Privileged access to power
• Concentrated family ownership
• Monopoly
• Public finance system unchanged
• Low tax rate (no capital gains, inheritance tax, VAT)
• Inheritance tax abolished in 2006
• ‘Tax reform’ defined as introducing sales/VAT tax
Ngo, 1999 on industrial policy

“During the pre-war period, the [colonial] state delivered a policy

verdict that it was unsuitable for Hong Kong to develop industry, for
fear of creating tariff protection that would harm trade, and to avoid
becoming a competitor of British industry.

Later, when Hong Kong industry did expand after the Second World War
because of a combination of external geo-political and economic
factors, and domestic business strategies, [colonial] state policy was
enacted to prevent industrial upgrading.”
BL on the economy
• Art 5: ‘… previous capitalist system and way of life remain unchanged
for 50 years’
• Art 6: Private property rights protected
• Art 7: State owns all land; Art 120: all land leases extended
• Art 8: Laws previously in force continue
• Art 9: ‘In addition to the Chinese language, English may also be
used…’
• Art 108: Low tax policy
• Art 112: No foreign exchange controls
Our Tycoons: Richest 6 own assets equivalent to 42% of HK’s GDP
‘Conglomerates under the control
of the abovementioned families
have a stranglehold on some of
HK’s economic arteries, namely
property, utilities, public bus
services and food retail. The rise
to power of these economic lords
owes a lot to a government that
adopts a laissez-faire approach
when it so suits them and at the
same time actively protects their
interests.’

Source: Poon, p. 44.

Education
• Colonial education
• Purpose: serve British economic interests
• Restricted access to tertiary education
• Curriculum, assessment: Western-oriented
• Dependence, inferiority (Faure, 2003)
• Tight political controls
Colonial education
• “‘Modern’ educational institutions introduced under colonialism … carried
out the ideological function of making the process of domination and
exploitation appear normal, inevitable or even scientific.
• The small elite educated at the secondary and higher level under these
circumstances would prove natural allies to the economic and political
interests of the imperialist nations.”
• Carnoy. 1974, 51
BL on education
• Art 136: ‘On the basis of the previous educational system the
government shall formulate policies on the development and
improvement of education…’
Education reforms
• HK government initiatives
• Mother-tongue teaching, 1998-99, curtailed
• Moral and national education, 2011-12, failed
• Central government criticisms
• Opinion, 2015
• Opinion, 2017
The civil service
• Colonial civil service
• British-led (… not meritocratic, Chan, 1997)
• Orientation (trustee, not agent)
• Corrupt, until 1980s
• Autonomous (self-managed)
• Local (education)
• ‘Political neutrality’ as ideology
BL on civil service
• Art 99*: All public servants may continue, same terms
• Art 103*: Previous HR system shall be maintained

• *No special privileges for foreign nationals.

Civil service reform attempts
• 1999 Downsizing, pay cuts
• 2003 Politically-appointed ministers (POAS, PAS), failed?

• Results:
• Political appointments taken over by ‘retired’ civil servants
• Civil service ‘trusteeship’ orientation largely unchanged
Results 1997 to 2019
• Politics
• Hybrid institutions unable to meet public demands to participate  protest
• Economy
• Low growth, stagnant, declining wages at bottom, unaffordable housing, growing
inequality restricted upward mobility
• Education
• Unequal access  restricted upward mobility
• Delivered post-materialist values to middle class
• Civil service
• Analytically, operationally competent?
• Politically incompetent  Low capacity
 Real Growth Rate of Wage Income Per Adult in Hong Kong

https://wid.world/zh/news-article/income-and-wealth-inequality-in-hong-kong-3/
Hong Kong’s property market

• “[Since 2009] Hong Kong’s residential property prices have

skyrocketed by 262% (162% inflation-adjusted), including spectacular
growth of 28.5% in 2009, 21% in 2010, 25.7% in 2012, 13.6% in 2014,
and 14.7% in 2017. In contrast, real incomes have virtually stagnated
in Hong Kong for years.”

• https://www.globalpropertyguide.com/Asia/Hong-Kong/Price-History
• 2021.2.20
SCMP 2021.8.11
Social mobility
• The economy
• 1970s-80s economic expansion
• Post-1997 economic stagnation

• Education – Increasingly unequal access to higher education

• Social mobility declining

Source: Ip & Lui, 2018; Peng, Yip & Law, 2018.

 Post-materialism in China, HK, by age cohort
Materialist values:
Post-Materialist Index 4-item Order
30 Stable prices
Econ. Growth
25 National defense
Economic stability
20 Fighting crime

15 Post-materialist values:
Participation in politics
10 Free speech
Participation in work decisions
5
Caring for environment
More humane society
0
Up to 29 30 -49 50 plus Ideas more important than money
China Hong Kong

Source: World Values Survey Wave 7, 2018; Davis & Davenport, 1999; Inglehart, 1999.
Decolonization, 2020-
• Political institutions
• Introduced a new ‘executive-led’ system; patriots in charge; restricted
participation
• Removing organized civil society support for opposition
• Tighter control of principal official appointments
• Economy
• ?
• Education
• School curriculum changes; fostering patriotism
• Civil service
• Oaths of office?
Need for change…
• CCP then on mainland: revolution of our times
• HK 2019 protesters: revolution of our times
• DAB: Reform
• CCP now: fixing ‘deep rooted contradictions and problems’
革命
变革
改革