MODULE 1

COMPLEX ALGEBRA AND

PHASORS
 INTRODUCTION
This part will be about the analysis of circuits in which the
source voltage or current is time-varying or sinusoidally time-varying
excitation, or simply, excitation by a sinusoid. A sinusoid is a signal
that has the form of the sine or cosine function.

A sinusoidal current is usually referred to as alternating current

(ac). This current reverses at regular time intervals and has alternately
positive and negative values. Circuits driven by sinusoidal current or
voltage sources are called ac circuits.
 INTRODUCTION
This section will be divided into:

 Origins of AC and DC current

 Difference between direct current and alternating current
system
 Generation of alternating current and voltage
 Waveform and vector representation of voltage and current
 Identifying different types of AC circuits (series), and their
corresponding wave and vector representation
 ORIGINS OF ALTERNATING
CURRENT AND DIRECT CURRENT
A magnetic field near a wire causes electrons to flow in a single direction
along the wire, because they are repelled by the negative side of a magnet and
attracted toward the positive side. This is how DC power from a battery was born,
primarily attributed to Thomas Edison’s work.
In late 1800s, the battle of direct current versus alternating current began.
Both had their own advantages. However, ac generators gradually replaced Edison’s
dc battery system because ac is more efficient and economical to transmit over long
distances. In ac, instead of applying the magnetism along the wire steadily, scientist
Nikola Tesla used a rotating magnet.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DC AND
AC SYSTEM
Electricity flows in two ways: either in an alternating current (AC) or in a
direct current (DC). The chart below shows the comparison between the two.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DC AND
AC SYSTEM

Note: Power factor is the ratio of the real power that is used to do work and the
apparent power that is supplied to the circuit.
 GENERATION OF ALTERNATING
CURRENT AND VOLTAGE
Alternating voltage may be generated (a) by rotating a coil in a magnetic field or
(b) by rotating a magnetic field within a stationary coil, as shown in the figure
below.
 GENERATION OF ALTERNATING
CURRENT AND VOLTAGE
Operation principle of generating alternating voltage is based on Electromagnetic Induction, which is
defined by Faraday’s Law, which states:

The electromotive force, Eemf, induced in a coil is proportional to the number of turns N, in the
coil and the rate of change, d/dt of the number of magnetic flux lines passing through the surface
enclosed by the coil. The emf is the voltage produce when a conductor winding in a magnetic field or by
altering the direction of flux.
The value of the voltage generated depends, in each case, upon the number of turns in the
coil, strength of the field and the speed at which the coil or magnetic field rotates. It changes:
 In magnitude from instant to instant as varying flux are cut per second; and
 In direction as coil sides changes positions under north and south poles, implies that an
alternating emf is generated.
 WAVEFORM AND VECTOR DIAGRAM
REPRESENTATION OF ALTERNATING
CURRENT AND VOLTAGE
AC Waveform

A wave is a disturbance. Unlike water waves, electrical waves cannot be

seen directly but they have similar characteristics. All periodic waves can be
constructed from sine waves, which is why sine waves are fundamental. While
waveform is the resulting graph of an alternating current plotted to a base of time.

Therefore, AC waveform is defined as one that varies in both magnitude

and direction in more or less an even manner with respect to time. It also refers to a
time-varying waveform known as a sinusoidal wave or a generated sine wave.
WAVEFORM AND VECTOR DIAGRAM
REPRESENTATION OF ALTERNATING
CURRENT AND VOLTAGE
Types of Waveform

 Sinusoidal wave

 Half wave
 Triangular wave
 Semi-circular wave
 Trapezoidal wave
 Square wave
 WAVEFORM AND VECTOR DIAGRAM
REPRESENTATION OF ALTERNATING
CURRENT AND VOLTAGE
Cycle
One complete series of values is called a cycle. One complete cycle is equivalent to
one revolution.

Time Period
The time taken in seconds for an alternating quantity to complete one cycle is
called the period or the periodic time, T, of the waveform. Which can be expressed
mathematically,

where
ω = the angular velocity in radian/s, which is equal to 2 πf
 WAVEFORM AND VECTOR DIAGRAM
REPRESENTATION OF ALTERNATING
CURRENT AND VOLTAGE
Frequency
The number of cycles completed per second is called the frequency, f, of
the supply and is measured in hertz, Hz. Also, it is the reciprocal of time period.
The standard frequency of the electricity supply in the Philippines is 60 Hz.

where
P = the number of pole/s
N = speed in revolution per minute
T = time period in seconds
EXAMPLE 1

1. Determine the periodic time for frequencies of (a) 50 Hz and (b) 20

kHz

2. Determine the frequencies for periodic times of (a) 4 ms, (b) 4 μs

3. An alternating current completes 5 cycles in 8 ms. What is its

frequency?
 WAVEFORM AND VECTOR DIAGRAM
REPRESENTATION OF ALTERNATING
CURRENT AND VOLTAGE
Peak value or maximum value or crest value or amplitude
This is largest value reached in a half cycle (during positive or negative) of
the waveform. Such values are represented by Vm, Im, etc.

Average or mean value

This is the average value measured over a half cycle (since over a complete
cycle the average value is zero). Mathematically, in general,
 WAVEFORM AND VECTOR DIAGRAM
REPRESENTATION OF ALTERNATING
CURRENT AND VOLTAGE
Effective value
This is the current which will produce the same heating effect as an
equivalent direct current. It is sometimes called as root mean square (rms) value
and whenever an alternating quantity is given, it is assumed to be the rms value.

Form factor (ff) and peak factor (pf),

 WAVEFORM AND VECTOR DIAGRAM
REPRESENTATION OF ALTERNATING
CURRENT AND VOLTAGE
The values of form and peak factor gives an indication of the shape of waveforms.
For sine wave, form factor is equivalent to 1.11 while 1.41 for the peak factor.
EXAMPLE 2

1. Calculate the rms value of a sinusoidal current of maximum value of

20 A

2. A supply voltage has a mean value of 150 V. Determine its maximum

value and its rms value.
 WAVEFORM AND VECTOR DIAGRAM
REPRESENTATION OF ALTERNATING
CURRENT AND VOLTAGE
Instantaneous values
Instantaneous values are the values of the alternating quantities at any
instant of time or angle of rotation. They are represented by small letter. Consider
the sinusoidal voltage

Similarly, the equation of induced alternating current

 WAVEFORM AND VECTOR DIAGRAM
REPRESENTATION OF ALTERNATING
CURRENT AND VOLTAGE

where
Em = the amplitude or maximum value of the sinusoidal voltage in
volt
Im = the amplitude or maximum value of the sinusoidal current in
ampere
ωt = the argument of the sinusoid
ø = the angle of lag or lead in degree
f = frequency of rotation of the coil in hertz
PHASE RELATIONSHIP OF A
SINUSOIDAL WAVEFORM
Note: Assume that the reference waveform is sine wave at 0
deg.
PHASOR DIAGRAM OF A SINUSOIDAL
WAVEFORM
PHASOR DIAGRAM OF A SINUSOIDAL
WAVEFORM
Two or more sine waves of the same frequency can be shown on the same vector
diagram because the various vectors representing different waves all rotate counter-
clockwise at the same frequency and maintain a fixed position relative to each other.
SINE AND COSINE WAVEFORM AND
PHASOR RELATIONSHIP
EXAMPLE 3

Calculate the phase difference between e 1 = -10

cos(ωt + 50°) and e2 = 12 sin(ωt - 10°). State which
sinusoid is leading. Draw the waveform and phasor
diagram.
EXAMPLE 4

Find the phase angle between i1 = -4 sin(377t +

25°) and i2 = 5 cos(377t - 40°). Does i1 lead or
lag i2? Draw the waveform and phasor
diagram.
EXAMPLE 5

Determine the (a) instantaneous current equations and

(b) draw the vector and wave diagram. Assume I 1 = I2 = I3
= I4 = 5 A and the reference vector is I1.

I2 leads I1 by 45°
I3 leads I1 by 30°
I4 lags I3 by 60°
ANYONE?
 SUMMATION OF IN – PHASE
SINUSOIDAL WAVES
When two or more sinusoidal voltage or current waves are in-phase and having the same
frequency, they may be added to yield a sine wave of the same frequency. The total value is
equal to the arithmetic sum of the maximum values of the component wave.
EXAMPLE 6

1. Two voltages of 50 volts and 25 volts respectively are in-phase,

determine the total voltage and the instantaneous voltage.

2. Find the total instantaneous voltage equation of the given data: v 1 =

20 sinωt, v2 = 15 cos(ωt - 90), v3 = -10 cos(ωt+90) and v4 = -20
sin(ωt+180).
 SUMMATION OF OUT – OF – PHASE
SINUSOIDAL WAVES
When two or more sinusoidal voltage or current waves are out-of-phase and having the same
frequency, they maybe added to yield a sine wave of the same frequency
 SUMMATION OF OUT – OF – PHASE
SINUSOIDAL WAVES
Out-of-phase sinusoidal quantities can be added or subtracted in two ways:

 The addition or subtraction of two or more values start with finding their
vector representation, the vertical and horizontal directions, and from this
the calculation of the vertical and horizontal components can be attained
for the resultant “R” vector, which is the total value.

Example, A + B
X – component = A cos(ø) + B cos(ø)
Y – component = A sin(ø) + B sin(ø)
EXAMPLE 7

1. Add the following currents: i1 = 7 sin ωt and i2 = 10 sin (ωt

+ π/3).

2. Two alternating voltages are represented by e1 = 50 sin ωt

and e2 = 100 sin (ωt - π/6)V. Draw the phasor diagram
and find, by calculation, a sinusoidal expression to
represent e1 + e2.
EXAMPLE 8

Find the total/resultant effective voltage, given the

following:

e1 = 10 sin ωt
e2 = -15 cos (ωt – π/3)
e3 = 10 cos ωt
e4 = -20 sin (ωt– π/3)
ANYONE?
 SUMMATION OF OUT – OF – PHASE
SINUSOIDAL WAVES
 Transform the given sinusoid into complex form:

A = Amcos(ø) ± j Am sin(ø)

where ± = depends on the sign of the angle

Then add or subtract the two vectors, A and B using the generalized expression is as
follows:

A = x + jy B = w + jz
A + B = (x + w) + j(y+z)

After adding or subtracting the two vectors, transform the complex form into
sinusoidal expression.
EXAMPLE 9

1. Add the following currents: i1 = 7 sin ωt and i2 = 10 sin (ωt

+ π/3).

2. Two alternating voltages are represented by e1 = 50 sin ωt

and e2 = 100 sin (ωt - π/6)V. Draw the phasor diagram
and find, by calculation, a sinusoidal expression to
represent e1 + e2.
EXAMPLE 8

Find the total/resultant effective voltage, given the

following:

e1 = 10 sin ωt
e2 = -15 cos (ωt – π/3)
e3 = 10 cos ωt
e4 = -20 sin (ωt– π/3)
ANYONE?
THANK YOU!