Contents

Day 1
Sl No. Topics Tentative time
01 Introduction to Metallurgy 2:30 to 2:40
02 Classification Metals and alloys 2:40 to 3:20
i. Pig Iron
ii. Cast Iron
iii. Steel

Tea Break 3:20 to 3:30

03 Introduction to Iron-Carbon Diagram 3:30 to 4:00
04 Common Phases in steel and Its properties 4:00 to 4:30
05 Role of Alloying Elements 4:30 to 5:00
Q&A 5:00 to 5:15
End of Day One with Tea and snacks
Day 2
01 Recap of day 1 2:30 to 2:45
02 Type of Heat treatment process and their applications 2:45 to 4:00
Tea Break 4:00 to 4:10
03 Metallurgical Inspection method 4:10 to 5:00
Q&A
End of Day Two with Tea and snacks
1
 Introduction to Metallurgy
Definition of Metallurgy
• Metallurgy is the branch of science and technology that deals with the study of
metals, their properties, extraction from ores, refining, alloying, shaping, and the
application of these metals to various practical uses.
• It encompasses a wide range of processes aimed at understanding, manipulating,
and utilizing metallic elements for industrial, commercial, and technological
purposes.
Importance of Metallurgy
• Metallurgy holds significant importance in modern society due to its widespread
applications and contributions to various industries.
• Here are some key reasons why metallurgy is important.
1. Infrastructure and Construction: Metallurgy provides essential materials
like steel, aluminium, and copper, which are integral to building infrastructure
such as bridges, skyscrapers, roads, and railways. These materials offer
strength, durability, and corrosion resistance, ensuring the longevity and safety
of structures.
2. Transportation: Metallurgy is crucial in the transportation sector, providing
lightweight yet strong materials for vehicles, aircraft, and ships. For example,
steel and aluminium alloys are extensively used in automotive manufacturing,
contributing to fuel efficiency and safety standards.
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 Introduction to Metallurgy
Importance of Metallurgy
3. Energy Production and Distribution: Metals play a vital role in energy
production and distribution systems. They are used in power plants, turbines,
transformers, and electrical wiring due to their conductivity, heat resistance,
and magnetic properties, facilitating efficient energy generation and
transmission.
4. Manufacturing and Industrial Processes: Metallurgy underpins various
manufacturing processes, including machining, casting, forging, and welding,
enabling the production of complex components and machinery used in
diverse industries such as manufacturing, electronics, and aerospace.
5. Technology and Electronics: Metallurgy is essential for the production of
electronic devices and components. Metals like copper, gold, and silver are
used in circuitry and connectors due to their excellent electrical conductivity,
while materials like titanium and tantalum are utilized in advanced electronics
for their unique properties.
6. Medical and Healthcare: Metallurgy contributes to the development of
medical devices, implants, and equipment. Biocompatible metals like titanium
and stainless steel are used in orthopedic implants and surgical instruments,
enhancing patient outcomes and improving healthcare delivery.

3
 Introduction to Metallurgy
Use of Metallurgy in Engine Construction
• Metallurgy plays a critical role in the design, manufacturing, and performance of
internal combustion (IC) engines, which are commonly used in automobiles,
motorcycles, aircraft, and other machinery. Here's how metallurgy is utilized in IC
engines.
1. Engine Components: Many components of an IC engine, such as the cylinder
block, cylinder head, pistons, crankshaft, connecting rods, and valves, are
typically made of metals. The choice of materials for these components is
crucial for ensuring strength, durability, heat resistance, and wear resistance
under the harsh operating conditions of the engine.
2. High-Temperature Applications: IC engines operate at high temperatures
and pressures, especially in the combustion chamber. Metallurgical materials
used in critical engine components must withstand these extreme conditions
without deformation, fatigue, or failure. Heat-resistant alloys, such as high-
strength steels and heat-resistant alloys like titanium or nickel-based
superalloys, are commonly used in these areas.
3. Cylinder Materials: The cylinder block and cylinder head must have
excellent thermal conductivity to efficiently dissipate heat generated during
combustion. Aluminum alloys are often used for these components due to their
lightweight and good thermal conductivity properties.
4
 Introduction to Metallurgy
Use of Metallurgy in Engine Construction
4. Piston and Rings: Piston and piston rings are subjected to high temperatures,
pressures, and mechanical stresses during engine operation. These components
are typically made of aluminum alloy for the piston and steel for the rings.
Metallurgical properties such as thermal expansion coefficients, hardness, and
wear resistance are critical for piston and ring materials.
5. Bearings and Lubrication: Bearings in an IC engine experience high loads
and temperatures, requiring materials with good wear resistance, fatigue
strength, and corrosion resistance. Common bearing materials include various
types of steel and aluminum alloys. Metallurgy also influences the design of
engine lubrication systems to ensure proper lubrication and cooling of moving
parts.
6. Exhaust System: The exhaust system of an IC engine is exposed to high
temperatures, corrosion, and thermal cycling. Metallurgical materials used in
exhaust components, such as exhaust manifolds, catalytic converters, and
mufflers, must possess high-temperature resistance and corrosion resistance.
Stainless steel alloys are commonly used in exhaust system components due to
their excellent corrosion resistance and durability.

5
 Introduction to Metallurgy
Use of Metallurgy in Engine Construction
7. Performance Optimization: Metallurgy is also used to optimize the
performance of IC engines by reducing weight, improving fuel efficiency,
enhancing power output, and minimizing emissions. Advanced metallurgical
techniques, such as alloy development, surface treatments, and heat treatment
processes, are employed to achieve these goals.

Overall, metallurgy plays a crucial role in the design, materials selection, and
manufacturing processes of IC engines, contributing to their performance, reliability,
and longevity.

6
 Introduction to Metallurgy

Required Functions
• Guiding Piston
• Receiving Combustion Pressure
• Discharging combustion Heat

Required Functions for Materials

• Good Machinability
• Wear and scuff resistant
• Light weight and High strength
• High Heat conductivity
• Castability

Chosen Material and Technology

Fig: Cast Iron Cylinder Block • Gray Cast Iron
• Compact Graphite Cast Iron
• Cast Al Alloy

7
 Introduction to Metallurgy

Fig: Piston

Required Functions Required Functions for Materials

• Forming Combustion chamber
• Transmitting Combustion power
• Gas Exchange
• Formability
Chosen Material and Technology
• Al-Si-Cu-Mg Alloy
• Low Thermal Expansion
• Anti-Seizure Property
• Wear Resistance
• High Thermal conductivity
• High Creep Strength
• High Fatigue Strength
• Light Weight
• High Machinability

8
 Introduction to Metallurgy
Required Functions
• Sealing of Combustion Gas
• Oil flim control
• Transmitting heat from piston head to cylinder

Required Functions for Materials

• High elasticity, Hard
• Fatiuge Strength at high temperature
• High Machinability
• Raising thermal conductivity

Chosen Material and Technology

• Gray Cast Iron
• Spheroidzed graphite cast iron
Fig: Piston Ring • Alloy cast iron
• Spring steel and stainless steel

9
 Introduction to Metallurgy
Required Functions
• Generating accurate valve motion
• Operating at high rotational velocity
• Precise shape with less cost

Required Functions for Materials

• High yongs’s modulus
• High Hardness and Strength
• High Fatiuge Strength
• High resistance at lubricant oil temperature
• High Machinability
• Raising thermal conductivity
• Near net shape and low cost

Chosen Material and Technology

• Chilled Cast Iron
• Cr-Mo steel
• Iron base sintered material

Fig: Camshaft
10
 Introduction to Metallurgy
Required Functions
• Opening ports to take gas in and closing ports to
seal gas
• High velocity reciprocating motion with low
friction along valve guide.
• Precise shapes giving smooth gas flow

Required Functions for Materials

• Low specific gravity
• High rigidity
• High Hardness and Strength at high temperature
• High Corrosion resistance
• High deformability
• Raising Machining accuracy

Fig: Valve Chosen Material and Technology

• Heat resistive steel and High Cr steel
• Ti alloy
• SiC ceramics
• Ni base superalloy

11
 Introduction to Metallurgy
Required Functions
• Convert reciprocating motion to rotational motion.
• Transfers power

Required Functions for Materials

• High Strength
• High fatigue resistance
• Good toughness
• Resistance to wear and corrosion
• Low weight and high stiffness.

Fig: Crankshaft Chosen Material and Technology

• Carbon steel
• Microalloyed steel
• Cr-Mo steel
• Nodular cast iron

12
 Introduction to Metallurgy
Required Functions
• Convert motion.
• Transfers power
• Supports piston movements

Required Functions for Materials

• High Strength
• High fatigue resistance
• Good toughness
• Resistance to wear and corrosion
• Low weight and high stiffness.

Chosen Material and Technology

• Carbon steel
• Microalloyed steel
• Iron base sintered material
Fig: Connecting Rod • Spheriodized graphite cast iron

13
 Introduction to Metallurgy
Required Functions
• Heat insulation
• Durability at high temperature
• Durability against vibrational loading

Required Functions for Materials

• Low thermal conductivity
• Ductility at low and medium temperature
• High fatigue resistance
• Anti oxidation
• High strength and low density

Chosen Material and Technology

• High Si cast iron
Fig: Exhaust manifold • Ni resist cast iron
• Cast stainless steel
• Stainless steel tube and sheet

14
 Classification of Metals and Alloys
Metals can be classified into several categories based on various criteria such as
chemical composition, physical properties, and usage. Here's a common classification
of metals:
1. Ferrous Metals:
Ferrous metals are those that contain iron as their primary constituent. Examples
include:
• Iron (Fe)
• Steel: Iron alloyed with carbon and other elements (e.g., stainless steel, carbon
steel)
• Cast iron: Iron alloyed with carbon and silicon
Ferrous metals are widely used in construction, manufacturing, transportation, and
infrastructure due to their strength, durability, and magnetic properties.
2. Non-ferrous Metals: Non-ferrous metals do not contain iron as their primary
constituent. Examples include: Aluminum (Al),Copper (Cu),Lead (Pb), Zinc
(Zn),Tin(Sn), Nickel (Ni), Precious metals such as gold (Au), silver (Ag), and
platinum (Pt)
Non-ferrous metals are valued for their corrosion resistance, conductivity, malleability,
and aesthetic properties. They are used in various industries, including aerospace,
electronics, construction, and jewelry making.

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 Classification of Metals and Alloys
3. Base Metals and Noble Metals:
• Base metals refer to common and widely used metals, primarily non-ferrous,
that are not considered precious or noble. Examples of base metals Aluminum,
copper, zinc, nickel
• Noble metals are precious metals that are resistant to corrosion and oxidation
in moist air, making them highly valuable and desirable for various
applications. Examples of noble metals: Gold, silver, platinum
4. Light Metals and Heavy Metals:
• Light metals have low atomic weights and densities, making them lightweight
and highly reactive. Examples include: Aluminum , Magnesium (Mg),
Titanium (Ti)
• Heavy metals have high atomic weights and densities, often exhibiting toxic
properties. Examples include: Lead, Mercury (Hg),Cadmium (Cd).
5. Alloys:
• Alloys are metallic materials composed of two or more elements, at least one
of which is a metal.
Alloys are classified based on their composition and properties. Common alloys
include steel (iron-carbon alloy), bronze (copper-tin alloy), brass (copper-zinc
alloy), and stainless steel (iron-chromium-nickel alloy).

16
 Classification of Ferrous Metals
Ferrous metals are those which contain iron as their primary constituent.
1. Carbon Steel:
• Low Carbon Steel: Contains less than 0.3% carbon. It's easily formed and
welded, used in sheet metal, wire, and rods.
• Medium Carbon Steel: Contains 0.3% to 0.6% carbon. It's stronger than low
carbon steel and used in structural applications like gears and axles.
• High Carbon Steel: Contains more than 0.6% carbon. It's very strong and used
in applications requiring hardness, such as cutting tools and springs.
2. Alloy Steel:
• Stainless Steel: Contains chromium (usually 10-20%), which forms a
protective oxide layer, making it resistant to corrosion. Various grades are
available depending on specific requirements such as strength, corrosion
resistance, and heat resistance.
• Tool Steel: Contains tungsten, molybdenum, cobalt, or vanadium to enhance
hardness, wear resistance, and heat resistance. Used in cutting tools, drills, and
dies.
• Nickel Steel: Contains nickel, providing enhanced toughness, strength, and
corrosion resistance. Used in construction, aerospace, and marine applications.
• Chromium Steel: Contains chromium for improved hardness and wear
resistance. Commonly used in automotive parts and machinery.
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 Classification of Ferrous Metals
3. Cast Iron:
• Gray Cast Iron: Contains graphite flakes, giving it a gray appearance. It's
relatively easy to cast and machine, used in engine blocks, pipes, and
cookware.
• White Cast Iron: Contains cementite (iron carbide), which makes it hard but
brittle. Used in applications requiring hardness, such as grinding balls and mill
liners.
• Ductile Cast Iron: Contains nodular graphite, giving it improved ductility and
toughness compared to gray cast iron. Used in automotive components, pipes,
and gears.
4. Wrought Iron:
• Historically significant, wrought iron is almost pure iron with a small amount
of slag. It's tough, malleable, and corrosion-resistant, but it's not widely used
today due to its high cost.

18
 Steel Specifications
• To Select the right steel for a particular application , some familiarity with standard
specifications and the associated notation is necessary.
• Specifications Vary from country to country and can be based on differing criteria.
• The majority of specification are in terms of the chemical composition of the steel.
• Indian Standard Specification: The IS specifications for steel are based mainly on
chemical composition. E.g IS : C07 is a carbon steel with 0.07 %C , C15 Stands for
0.15 % C.
• The concentrations of the other alloying elements be expressly stated. E.g
55Mn1 stands for 0.55 % C , 1% Mn.
• For tool steel , the letter T is used at the start of the notation. E.g T118 Stands
for 1.18 % C tool steel.
• AISI-SAE Classification : The US designations for steel are those of the American
Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) and the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE).
• In both of them the composition is denoted by a four digit number. The last
two digit denotes the other alloying elements. AISI 1040 stands for a 0.4 % C
steel . AISI 4340 means Ni-Cr-Mo steel , with 1.8% Ni, 0.8%Cr,0.25 % Mo
and 0.4 % C.

19
 Steel Specifications

• British Specification: The older British specification for steels habe the letters En
followed by a number . For Example En 2 stands for a carbon steel with 0.15 % C.
EN 8 is a 0.4 % C steel. En 24 is Ni-Cr-Mo low alloy steel.
• In the later British specification BS970, the first three digits stand for the alloy
content. The middle letter A,M or H stands for analysis , Mechanical Properties or
Hardenability.

20
 Introduction to Iron- Carbon
Diagram
• The iron-carbon (Fe-C) diagram, also known as the iron-iron carbide diagram or the
phase diagram of iron and carbon, is a graphical representation of the phases that
form in iron-carbon alloys as a function of temperature and carbon content. It is a
fundamental tool in metallurgy and materials science for understanding the behavior
of iron and steel under different conditions.
• Importance
• Understanding Phase Transformations: The iron-carbon diagram provides
insight into the various phases that can exist in iron-carbon alloys at different
temperatures and carbon concentrations. This understanding is crucial for
controlling the microstructure and properties of steels during processing and
heat treatment.
• Heat Treatment Design: Knowledge of the iron-carbon diagram helps in
designing heat treatment processes to achieve desired properties in steels. By
controlling the heating and cooling rates, engineers can manipulate the phases
present in the material, leading to specific mechanical, thermal, and electrical
properties.
• Material Selection: Engineers and material scientists use the iron-carbon
diagram to select appropriate steel grades for specific applications based on the
required mechanical properties, such as strength, toughness, hardness, and
corrosion resistance. 21
Introduction to Iron- Carbon
Diagram
Equilibrium Diagram reaction

22
Introduction to Iron- Carbon Diagram

23
Introduction to Iron- Carbon Diagram

Delta Region of Iron- Carbon Diagram

24
Development of Microstructure in Iron

Carbon alloys Microstructure

depends on composition (carbon
content) and heat treatment. In
the discussion below we
consider slow cooling in which
equilibrium is maintained

25
Microstructure of eutectoid steel

• When alloy of eutectoid composition (0.76

wt % C) is cooled slowly it forms perlite, a
lamellar or layered structure of two phases:
α-ferrite and cementite (Fe3C)
• The layers of alternating phases in pearlite
are formed for the same reason as layered
structure of eutectic structures:
redistribution C atoms between ferrite
(0.022 wt%) and cementite (6.7 wt%) by
atomic diffusion.
• Mechanically, pearlite has properties
intermediate to soft, ductile ferrite and
hard, brittle cementite. Microstructure of
eutectoid steel (II) In the micrograph, the
dark areas are Fe3C layers, the light phase
is α- ferrite

26
Microstructure of hypoeutectoid steel

Compositions to the left of

eutectoid (0.022 - 0.76 wt % C)
hypoeutectoid (less than
eutectoid -Greek) alloys

27
Heat Treatment Diagram

28
Introduction to Iron- Carbon Diagram
• Objective of Fe-C diagram
1. Exploring Phases: The iron-carbon diagram illustrates the different phases
that form in iron-carbon alloys as a function of temperature and carbon
content. These phases include ferrite, austenite, cementite, pearlite, martensite,
and various forms of intermediate phases.
2. Phases and Transformations:
• Ferrite (α): A solid solution of carbon in iron, with a maximum solubility
of around 0.022% carbon at room temperature. Ferrite is soft and ductile.
• Austenite (γ): Another solid solution of carbon in iron, with a higher
carbon solubility compared to ferrite. Austenite is stable at elevated
temperatures and exhibits a face-centered cubic (FCC) crystal structure.
• Cementite (Fe3C): An iron carbide phase with a fixed composition of
6.7% carbon. It is very hard and brittle.
• Pearlite: A lamellar mixture of ferrite and cementite formed by eutectoid
transformation. It is a common microstructure in many steels.
• Martensite: A metastable phase formed by rapid quenching from
austenite. It is very hard and strong but lacks ductility.
• Other Transformations: The diagram also depicts other transformations
such as eutectic, eutectoid, and peritectic reactions, which govern the
formation of different phases during cooling or heating processes.
29
Introduction to Iron- Carbon Diagram
By studying the iron-carbon diagram, engineers and scientists can predict the
microstructure evolution in iron-carbon alloys under different processing conditions,
leading to the development of advanced materials with tailored properties for specific
applications.
• Allotropy of Iron
• Iron exhibits allotropic forms primarily based on temperature variations. The
main allotropes of iron are alpha (α), gamma (γ), and delta (δ) iron.
1. Alpha Iron (α-iron):
• Stable below 912°C.
• It has a body-centered cubic (BCC) crystal structure.
• Also known as ferrite.
• It's relatively soft and ductile.
• Commonly found in pure iron at room temperature and in steel with
low carbon content
2. Gamma Iron (γ-iron):
• Stable between 912°C and 1,394°C.
• It has a face-centered cubic (FCC) crystal structure.
• Also known as austenite.
• It's relatively soft and ductile.
• Typically found in steel with higher carbon content and in some
high-temperature alloys.
30
Introduction to Iron- Carbon Diagram
• Allotropy of Iron
3. Delta Iron (δ-iron):
• Stable between 1,394°C and 1,539°C.
• It has a body-centered cubic (BCC) crystal structure.
• Less common in practical applications.
• Occurs in some high-temperature alloys.

31
Introduction to Iron- Carbon Diagram
• Allotropy of Iron
3. Delta Iron (δ-iron):
• Stable between 1,394°C and 1,539°C.
• It has a body-centered cubic (BCC) crystal structure.
• Less common in practical applications.
• Occurs in some high-temperature alloys.

32
Introduction to Iron- Carbon Diagram
• Overview of Fe-C Diagram :The iron-carbon phase diagram is a graphical
representation of the phases that form in iron-carbon alloys as a function of
temperature and carbon content..
• Axes
• Horizontal Axis (Temperature): Typically measured in degrees Celsius or
Kelvin, representing the temperature range over which the phase
transformations occur.
• Vertical Axis (Carbon Content): Represents the carbon concentration in
the iron-carbon alloy, usually expressed in weight percentage or atomic
percentage.
• Regions
• Austenite:
High-temperature phase with a face-centered cubic (FCC) crystal
structure.
Found at higher temperatures and higher carbon concentrations.
Located in the upper right portion of the diagram.
• Ferrite:
• Low-temperature phase with a body-centered cubic (BCC) crystal
structure.
• Present at lower temperatures and lower carbon concentrations.
• Located in the lower left portion of the diagram.
33
Introduction to Iron- Carbon Diagram
• Regions
• Cementite:
• Iron carbide phase with a fixed composition of 6.7% carbon (Fe3C).
• Very hard and brittle.
• Forms along with ferrite or pearlite depending on the carbon content
and cooling rate.
• Located in the upper region of the diagram.
• Graphite:
• Pure carbon phase.
• Present in cast irons, particularly gray cast iron.
• Formed during solidification from the melt.
• Typically not present in steels.
• Mixed Phases:
• Regions where two or more phases coexist, such as pearlite (a
mixture of ferrite and cementite) or austenite with pearlite.
• Critical Points
• Eutectic Point:
• The composition and temperature at which liquid iron transforms
into a mixture of austenite and cementite during cooling.
• Represents the lowest melting point of the alloy.
• Located at the eutectic composition (4.3% carbon) and temperature
(around 1,149°C). 34
Introduction to Iron- Carbon Diagram
• Critical Points
• Eutectoid Point:
• The composition and temperature at which austenite transforms into
a mixture of ferrite and cementite during cooling.
• Represents the lowest temperature at which austenite can exist.
• Located at the eutectoid composition (0.76% carbon) and
temperature (around 727°C).
• Peritectic Point
• The composition and temperature at which liquid iron transforms
into austenite during heating.
• Located at a higher temperature than the eutectic point.
• Represents the completion of the liquid-to-solid transformation
during heating.

35
Introduction to Iron- Carbon Diagram
• Role of Microstructural constituents on Mechanical properties

36
Introduction to Iron- Carbon Diagram
• Effect of Alloying Elements Iron- Carbon Diagram.
• Alloying elements affect the relative stabilities of alpha and gamma iron as
also on critical points (A4, A3, and A1)and carbon content. From the point of
view of their effect on austenite and ferrite, the alloying elements can be
grouped in two classes. They are:
1. Elements which tend to stabilize ferrite. These are called ferrite
stabilizers, e.g. Cr, W, Mo, V, and Si.
2. Elements which tend to stabilize austenite. These are called austenite
stabilizers. Mn, Ni, Co, and Cu are some elements which fall under this
category.

Effect of chromium on
austenite phase region.

37
Introduction to Iron- Carbon Diagram

Effect of various alloying

elements on the eutectoid
temperature and
composition.

38
Role of alloying Elements in Steel
Elements Role
Al, Si, Ca • Deoxidizer in Steelmaking
• Increases Hardness / Strength
C
• Increases Hardenability
• Increases Hardenability
Ni • Increases Toughness
• Mild Corrosion Resistance
• Increases Hardenability
Mo
• Increases hot Strength/ Creep
• Increases corrosion resistance
Cr
• Increases Hardenability
V • Grain Refinement
Mn • Increases tensile strength
• Solid solution strengthening
Si
• >1% electrical steels

39