22 Quantum Physics

22.2 Photoelectric effect

 Syllabus
22.2 Photoelectric effect
Candidates should be able to:
1 understand that photoelectrons may be emitted from a metal surface
when it is illuminated by electromagnetic radiation
 2 understand and use the terms threshold frequency and threshold
wavelength
 3 explain photoelectric emission in terms of photon energy and work
function energy
4 recall and use
5 explain why the maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons is
independent of intensity, whereas the photoelectric current is
proportional to intensity
 The photoelectric effect
• Photoelectric effect was first observed by German physicist Heinrich Hertz in 1887.
• This was a highly significant discovery because it caused scientists to think about light
in an entirely new way.
• At that time light was thought to be a wave, and wave theory proved to be sufficient to
explain many properties of light, such as reflection, refraction, interference and
diffraction.
• What is the photoelectric effect?
• If you shine radiation of a high enough frequency onto the surface of a metal, it will
instantly eject electrons (see Figure).
 For most metals, the necessary frequency falls in the ultraviolet range.
Because of the way atoms are bonded together in metals, metals contain ‘free electrons’
that are able to move about the metal.
The free electrons on or near the surface of the metal absorb energy from the radiation.
Before an electron can leave the surface of the metal, it needs enough energy to break
the bonds holding it there.
 This energy is called the work function energy () and its value depends on the metal.
 Minimum energy required to emit electron from the metal surface is called the work
function energy of the metal.
Different metals have different work functions.
If an electron absorbs this amount of energy (or more), it is released.
This is called the photoelectric effect and the electrons emitted are called photoelectrons.
Photoelectric effect is the emission of electrons from a metal surface when light
(electromagnetic radiation) of suitable frequency incident into it.
 Simple demonstration of photoelectric effect
The photoelectric effect can be demonstrated with a simple experiment that uses a gold-leaf
electroscope (a box containing a piece of metal with a strip of gold leaf attached).
A zinc plate is attached to the top of the electroscope (see Figure).

The zinc plate is given a negative charge (which in turn means the metal and the gold leaf in
the box are negatively charged).
 The negatively charged metal repels the negatively charged gold leaf, causing it to rise up. UV
light is then shone onto the zinc plate.
The energy of the light causes electrons to be lost from the zinc plate via the photoelectric
effect.
As the zinc plate, the metal and the gold leaf lose their negative charge, the gold leaf is no
longer repelled and so falls back down.
 There are many more experiments that can be done using different metals
and a wide range of frequencies of incident light.
 It is also possible to measure the kinetic energies of the photoelectrons
after they have been emitted from the surface of the metal.
 The electroscope experiment is simple, but it was revolutionary.
 This effect was first observed by German physicist Heinrich Hertz in 1887.
 Phillip Lenard one of the students of Hertz carried out an experiment to
investigate on photoelectric effect.
 Key observations
Lenard and other scientists at that time made the following key observations. Some surprising
observations were noticed in these experiments.
Photoelectrons were emitted only if the incident radiation was above a certain frequency
(called the threshold frequency f0) for each metal. No matter how intense the incident
radiation (how bright the light) , not a single electron would be emitted if the frequency
was less than the threshold frequency.
The photoelectrons are emitted with a variety of kinetic energies ranging from zero to
some maximum value. This value of maximum kinetic energy increases with the frequency
of the radiation, but is independent of the intensity of the incident radiation.
More photoelectrons are emitted as the intensity of light increases, but only if the
frequency of the light used is above the threshold value i.e. the number of photoelectrons
emitted per second is directly proportional to the intensity of the radiation.
If the incident radiation was above the threshold frequency, emission of photoelectrons
was instantaneous.
But they couldn’t explain these conclusions if EM radiation only acts as a wave...
Wave theory says that for a particular frequency of EM wave, the energy carried
should be proportional to the intensity of the beam.
This means that if an EM wave were shone on to a metal, each free electron on
the surface of the metal would gain a bit of energy from each incoming wave.
 Gradually, each electron would gain energy until its energy equalled the work
function and it could leave the metal.
If the EM wave had a lower frequency (i.e. was carrying less energy) it would
take longer for the electrons to gain this energy, but it would happen eventually.
However, electrons are never emitted unless the wave is above a threshold
frequency — so wave theory can’t explain the threshold frequency.
The higher the intensity of the wave, the more energy it should transfer to each
electron — the kinetic energy of the electrons should increase with intensity.
The number of photoelectrons emitted per second should not depend on
intensity.
It takes a certain minimum amount of energy, called the work function, to
eject a single electron from a particular surface.
 If the light falling on the surface is very faint, sometime may elapse before
the total energy absorbed by the surface equals the work function.
 Hence, for faint illumination, we expect a time delay between when we
switch on the light and when photoelectrons appear.
If the EM radiation were a simple wave, several minutes would be required
for sufficient energy to be deposited to the metal surface to eject an
electron.
Once EM radiation falls on a material, electrons are ejected without delay.
 Einstein’s Postulates and the Photoelectric Effect
The idea that light is quantized is now widely understood and accepted. But at the
time of Einstein’s paper, it was a truly revolutionary idea. In his 1905 paper, Einstein
framed three postulates about light quanta and their interaction with matter:
Light of frequency consists of discrete quanta, each of energy. Each photon
travels at the speed of light.
Light quanta are emitted or absorbed on an all-or-nothing basis. A substance can
emit 1 or 2 or 3 quanta, but not 1.5. Similarly, an electron in a metal cannot
absorb half a quantum but only an integer number.
A light quantum, when absorbed by a metal, delivers its entire energy to one
electron.
Note: These three postulates—that light comes in chunks, that the chunks cannot
be divided, and that the energy of one chunk is delivered to one electron— are
crucial for understanding the new ideas that will lead to quantum physics.
 Explanation of photoelectric effect from Particle (photon) model
According to the photon model, when EM radiation hits a metal, the metal’s surface is
bombarded by photons.
If one of these photons collides with a free electron, there is a one-to-one interaction
between the photon and the surface electron.
The electron gains energy equal to (as all of the photon’s energy is transferred to the
electron).
This idea could be used to explain the conclusions from the photoelectric effect, meaning
that the photoelectric effect supported the particulate (particle-like) nature of EM radiation.
If the energy gained by an electron (on the surface of the metal) from a photon is greater
than the work function, the electron is emitted.
 If the energy is lower, the electron will just shake about a bit, then release the energy as
another photon.
The metal will heat up, but no electrons will be emitted.
So for electrons to be released. The value of is the threshold frequency when as this is the
minimum requirement for electrons to be emitted.
Note: The threshold frequency is the minimum frequency of the incident
electromagnetic radiation that will release an electron from the metal surface and the
threshold wavelength is the longest wavelength of incident radiation that will release an
electron from the metal surface
The energy transferred from EM radiation to an electron is the energy it absorbs from
one photon, .
The kinetic energy it will be carrying when it leaves the metal is minus any energy
losses.
 The minimum amount of energy an electron can lose is the work function energy.
These energy losses are the reason the electrons emitted from a metal have a range of
kinetic energies.
The intensity of radiation is the power transferred by the radiation over a given area.
In the photon model, this is the number of photons that hit a given area every second.
Increasing the intensity just means more photons per second on an area — each
photon has the same energy as before.
The kinetic energy of the electrons is independent of the intensity, as they
can only absorb one photon at a time and the energy of each photon has
not changed.
Providing the incident radiation is above the threshold frequency of a
metal, the number of photoelectrons emitted every second (the rate of
emission) is directly proportional to the intensity of the radiation.
This is because each collision liberates an electron, so if more collisions
occur in a given time, more photoelectrons must be released in that time.
Once EM radiation falls on a material, electrons are ejected without delay.
As soon as an individual photon of a sufficiently high frequency transfers its
energy to just one electron, that electron immediately has enough energy
to escape and the electron is ejected.
 Einstein’s photoelectric equation
Energy from a photon is used to release a photoelectron and give the
photoelectron kinetic energy.
Conservation of energy means that energy from the photon equals the
threshold energy plus kinetic energy of the photoelectron.
The work function of a material is the minimum energy needed to release a
photoelectron from a material. The work function has the symbol.
Applying the conservation of energy when energy, , is transferred from the photon to a
photoelectron:

 where is Planck’s constant

 is the frequency of the radiation in hertz
 is the work function of a material in joules
 Or is the maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons, with mass and maximum velocity.
This equation is called Einstein’s photoelectric equation.
Electrons emitted from the material’s surface have the maximum kinetic energy because
energy is not used moving to the surface.
Electrons from deeper in the material have less kinetic energy as some energy is used
moving to the surface.
 is the work function of the metal, minimum energy required to emit the
electron from the metal surface.
If the photon of threshold frequency incident on the metal surface, the kinetic
energy of the emitted electron will be zero. i.e.

Hence

where, is threshold wavelength, the maximum (longest) wavelength of the

photon which emits the electron from the metal surface.
Again from Einstein’s photoelectric equation,
 A graph of the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons plotted
against the frequency of the radiation can be seen in the Fig.

Considering to the general equation for a straight line graph, and rearranging
to match we get .
We can see that the gradient of this graph must equal to Planck constant h and
the y-axis intercept equal to ,where is the work function of the metal.
 Different metals
Every metal has a different work function, so the threshold frequency for each
metal is different
In each case a graph of maximum kinetic energy against frequency will have
same gradient but of different intercept.
The explanation for the experimental observations of
photoelectric effect can be summarised as:
Light travels as photons, with a photon's energy proportional to the frequency.
When a photon encounters an electron, it transfers all its energy to the electron
(the photon ceases to exist).
If an electron gains sufficient energy - more than the work function - it can
escape the surface of the metal as a photoelectron.
Brighter illumination means more photons per second, which will mean a
greater number of photoelectrons emitted per second.
If an electron does not gain sufficient energy from an encounter with a photon
to escape the metal surface, it will transfer the energy gained from the photon
to the metal as a whole before it can interact with another photon. Thus, if the
photon energy is too low, no photoelectrons are observed.
 Numerical
• The Photoelectric Effect for a Silver Surface
• The work function for a silver surface is. Find the minimum frequency that light
must have to eject electrons from this surface.
• Reasoning
• The minimum frequency is that frequency at which the photon energy equals
the work function of the metal, so the electron is ejected with zero kinetic
energy. Since, the work function expressed in joules is
• The work function for zinc is 4.3 eV. Explain why photoelectric emission is observed when
ultraviolet light of wavelength in the order of 200 nm is shone onto a zinc plate but not when a
60 W filament lamp is used.
• Solution:
• A photon of the ultraviolet light has energy:

• This is greater than the 4.3 eV work function for zinc. This means that each photon will have
sufficient energy to remove an electron from the surface of the zinc and photoemission will
occur.
• The threshold frequency for zinc is given by:
•
• The shortest wavelength (highest frequency) visible light is 400 nm (at the blue end of the
visible spectrum).
• The frequency of the blue end of the visible spectrum is:

• Photoemission therefore will not take place.

• Problem: A sodium surface is illuminated with light of wavelength 300 nm. The
work function for sodium is 2.46 eV. Calculate (a) the energy of each photon in
electron volts, (b) the maximum kinetic energy of the ejected photoelectrons,
and (c) the threshold wavelength for sodium.
• SOLUTION
• (a) Calculate the energy of each photon.
• Obtain the frequency from the wavelength:

• Use Equation to calculate the photon’s energy:

• (b)Find the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons.
• Substitute into Equation

• (c)Compute the threshold wavelength.

• Convert from electron volts to joules:

• Find the threshold wavelength using Equation:

 Characteristics of the Photoelectric Effect
• Figure shows an evacuated glass tube with
two facing electrodes and a window.
• When ultraviolet light shines on the cathode
(made up of photo sensitive material), a
steady anticlockwise current (clockwise flow
of electrons) passes through the ammeter.
• There are no junctions in this circuit, so the
current must be the same all the way around
the loop.
• The current in the space between the
cathode and the anode consists of electrons
moving freely through space (i.e., not inside
a wire) at the same rate as the current in the
wire.
• There is no current if the electrodes are in
the dark, so electrons don’t spontaneously
leap off the cathode. Instead, the light causes
electrons to be ejected from the cathode at a
steady rate.
• The battery in Figure establishes an
adjustable potential difference ∆V
between the two electrodes.
• With it, we can study how the current I
varies as the potential difference and the
light’s wavelength and intensity are
changed. Doing so reveals the following
characteristics of the photoelectric effect:
• The current I is directly proportional to the
light intensity. If the light intensity is
doubled, the current also doubles.
• The current appears without delay when
the light is applied.
• Electrons are emitted only if the light
frequency f exceeds a threshold frequency
f0. This is shown in the graph of Figure.
• The value of the threshold frequency
f0 depends on the type of metal from
which the cathode is made.
• If the potential difference ∆V is more
than about 1 V positive (anode
positive with respect to the cathode),
the current changes very little as ∆V is
increased.
• If ∆V is made negative (anode
negative with respect to the cathode),
by reversing the battery, the current
decreases until at some voltage ∆V = -
Vstop the current reaches zero. The
voltage at which the current becomes
zero is called the stopping voltage, Vs.
• The value of Vstop is the same for both
weak light and intense light. A more
intense light causes a larger current,
but in both cases the current ceases
when ∆V = -Vstop.
• This behavior is shown in Figure.
 Explanations
• The electrons, after leaving the
cathode, move out in all
directions.
• Figure shows what happens as
the potential difference ∆V
between the cathode and the
anode is varied:
• If the potential difference
between the cathode and the
anode is ∆V = 0, there will be no
electric field between the plates.
• Some electrons will reach the
anode, creating a measurable
current, but many do not.
• If the anode is positive, it
attracts all of the electrons to
the anode.
• A further increase in ∆V does
not cause any more electrons
to reach the anode and thus
does not cause a further
increase in the current I.
• This is why the curves in
Figure become horizontal for
∆V more than about 1 V
positive.
• If the anode is negative, it repels the
electrons.
• However, an electron leaving the
cathode with sufficient kinetic energy
can still reach the anode, just as a
ball hits the ceiling if you toss it
upward with sufficient kinetic energy.
• A slightly negative anode voltage
turns back only the slowest electrons.
• The current steadily decreases as the
anode voltage becomes increasingly
negative.
• At the stopping potential, all
electrons are turned back and the
current ceases.
• Because, by definition, potential difference
= energy transferred/charge, after
measuring Vs we can use the following
equation to calculate values for the
maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons:

• In other words, measuring the stopping

potential tells us the maximum kinetic
energy of the electrons.
• For convenience, it is common to quote all
energies associated with the photoelectric
effect in electronvolt (eV). In which case,
the maximum kinetic energy of the
photoelectrons is numerically equals to the
stopping potential. That is, if the stopping
potential is, say 3V, then, .
• Einstein’s photoelectric equation can be
rewritten as:
 Section summary

Make sure you know...

That electromagnetic radiation exists in discrete packets, called quanta.
That Einstein called these packets photons.
That photons behave like particles — they have one-to-one interactions with other
particles.
That the energy of a photon can be found using or .
That the electron volt is a unit of energy.
That the work function is the minimum energy a surface electron needs to absorb to
be released from a metal.
What the photoelectric effect is and how it can be demonstrated, e.g. using a gold-
leaf electroscope and a zinc plate.
That for a given metal, if the incident radiation is below the threshold frequency,
photoelectrons won’t be emitted.
That the kinetic energy of photoelectrons ranges from zero to a maximum value, and
that this maximum value increases with the frequency of the radiation.
That the number of photoelectrons emitted each second is directly proportional to
the intensity of the incident radiation.
That wave theory cannot explain the idea of a threshold frequency, or why the kinetic
energy of photoelectrons doesn’t depend on the intensity of the incident radiation.
That ideas about photons can be used to explain the photoelectric effect.
That photons have a one-to-one interaction with surface electrons, so all of a
photon’s energy is transferred to a single electron in the photoelectric effect.
That one-to-one interactions explain why there is a threshold frequency in the
photoelectric effect and why the kinetic energy of the electrons is independent of
intensity.
How to calculate the threshold frequency of a metal, using .
How to use Einstein’s photoelectric equation,
 Sample Question:
• Monochromatic light is shone on a metallic surface, resulting in the emission
of photoelectrons.
• The kinetic energy possessed by an individual photoelectron never exceeds Ek
(max). Figure shows how Ek (max) varies as the frequency of the light, f, is increased.
• (a)Explain why no photoelectrons are emitted unless f is greater than a
threshold value.
[1]
• E.g. below this threshold frequency photon energy (hf ) is less than the
metal’s work function / Below this frequency the photon’s energy is less than
that required to break the electron’s bonds and release it from the metal
• (b)Explain why the kinetic energy of most photoelectrons is less than Ek (max).
[1]
• Photoelectrons are likely to lose energy in collisions as they leave the metal
• (c) Using Figure, determine the work function of the metal.
[1]
• 3.6 eV
• (d)Calculate the maximum speed of a photoelectron emitted when 9.3 × 1014 Hz
light is incident on the metal.
[4]
• Convert work function into joules:

• Calculate Ek (max)
•

• Now calculate

• (e)Predict how Figure would be affected if the intensity of light incident on the
surface were increased. [1]
• There will be no change
 CAIE Past papers
• (a)With reference to the photoelectric effect, state what is meant by the
threshold frequency.
[2]
• Minimum frequency for electron(s) to be emitted (from surface)
• reference to frequency of electromagnetic radiation/ photon
• or
• frequency causing emission of electron(s) from surface with zero kinetic
energy
• reference to frequency of electromagnetic radiation/ photon
• (b) Electromagnetic radiation of wavelength λ is incident on a metal surface.
Electrons of maximum kinetic energy EMAX are emitted.
• (i) On Fig., sketch the variation with 1/λ of EMAX. [2]

• positive intercept on (1/ λ)-axis (when extrapolated)

• straight line with positive gradient
• (ii)State an equation relating the gradient of the graph drawn on Fig. to the Planck
constant . Explain any symbols you use. [1]
• where c is the speed of light
• (iii)Explain why, for any particular wavelength of electromagnetic radiation, most of the
electrons are emitted with kinetic energies less than the maximum value EMAX. [2]
• maximum kinetic energy when electron emitted from surface
• energy is required to bring an electron to the surface
• (iv)Light of a particular wavelength is incident on a metal surface and gives rise to a
photoelectric current.
• The wavelength is reduced. The intensity of the light is kept constant. State and explain
the effect, if any, on the photoelectric current. [3]
• each photon has more energy
• fewer photons per unit time
• fewer electrons per unit time/ less current
• February/March 2016, 9702/42
• 7. Experiments are conducted to investigate the photoelectric effect.
• (a) It is found that, on exposure of a metal surface to light, either electrons are
emitted immediately or they are not emitted at all.
Suggest why this observation does not support a wave theory of light. [3]
• for a wave, electron can ‘collect’ energy continuously
• for a wave, electron will always be emitted / electron will be emitted at all
frequencies…..
• after a sufficiently long delay
• (b)Data for the wavelength λ of the radiation incident on the metal surface and
the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted electrons are shown in Fig. 7.1.
 650 -
240 4.44

• (i) Without any calculation, suggest why no value is given for EK for radiation of
wavelength 650 nm. [1]
• either wavelength is longer than threshold wavelength
• or frequency is below the threshold frequency
• or photon energy is less than work function
• (ii) Use data from Fig. 7.1 to determine the work function energy of the surface.
[3]
• (c) Radiation of wavelength 240 nm gives rise to a maximum photoelectric
current I. The intensity of the incident radiation is maintained constant and the
wavelength is now reduced.
• State and explain the effect of this change on
• (i) the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons, [2]
• photon energy larger
• so (maximum) kinetic energy is larger
• (ii) the maximum photoelectric current I. [2]
• fewer photons (per unit time)
• so (maximum) current is smaller
• May/June 2011, 9702/41
• 8 (a) (i) Show that the momentum p of a photon of electromagnetic radiation
with wavelength λ is given by

• where h is the Planck constant. [2]

• (ii) Use the expression in (a)(i) to show that a photon in free space that has a
momentum of 9.5 × 10–28Ns is a photon of red light. [1]
• wavelength = (6.63 10–34) / (9.5 10–28) = 700 10–9 m so red
• (b) A beam of red light of intensity 160Wm–2 is incident normally on a plane
mirror, as shown in Fig. 8.1. The momentum of each photon in the beam is 9.5
× 10–28Ns.
• All of the light is reflected by the mirror in the opposite direction to its original
path. The cross-sectional area of the beam is 2.5 × 10–6m2
• (i) Show that the number of photons incident on the mirror per unit time is 1.4
× 1015 s–1. [2]
• (ii) Use the information in (b)(i) to determine the pressure exerted by the light beam on
the mirror. [3]

• (c) The beam of red light in (b) is now replaced with a beam of blue light of the same
intensity.
• Suggest and explain whether the pressure exerted on the mirror by the beam of blue
light is less than, the same as, or greater than the pressure exerted by the beam of red
light.
• photons have greater momentum or fewer photons per unit time
• greater photon momentum but smaller number of photons (per unit time)
• so pressure is the same 9702/41 October/November 2023
• 8 (a) State what is meant by a photon. [2]
• packet / quantum of energy of electromagnetic radiation
• (b) When the surface of a metal plate is illuminated with electromagnetic
radiation, electrons are sometimes emitted from the metal.
• (i) State the name of this phenomenon. [1]
• photoelectric effect
• (ii) It is observed that this phenomenon occurs only when the frequency of the
electromagnetic radiation is greater than a certain minimum value, regardless of
the intensity of the radiation. Explain how this observation provides evidence for
the existence of photons. [3]
• electron needs a minimum energy to escape or electron emitted if energy in
packet is enough
• energy must be absorbed in packets that are related to frequency
• intensity relates to number of packets (not to energy in packet)
• electron absorbs only a single whole packet
• (c)Fig. 8.1 shows the variation of the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted
electrons in (b) with the frequency of the incident radiation.
• State the name of the quantity represented by:
• (i) the gradient of the line in Fig. 8.1 [1]
• Planck constant
• (ii) the y-intercept of the extrapolated line in Fig. 8.1. [1]
• – work function (energy)
• 9702/42 October/November 2023
• (a) A photon has an energy of 3.11 × 10–19 J. Calculate the momentum of the
photon. [2]
• Ns
• (b) A laser beam has a power of 350mW. The light from the laser has a
wavelength of 640nm.
• (i) Determine the number of photons emitted by the laser in a time of1.0s [2]
• ii) The laser beam is incident normally on a surface that absorbs all of the
photons. Show that the force F exerted on the surface by the laser beam is
given by where P is the power of the laser beam and c is the speed of light.[2]

• Use of and to complete the algebra and arrive at the final equation:
• (c) Light of a single wavelength is incident on the surface of different metals.
The work function energy of the metals is given in Table 7.1.
• (i) Explain the term threshold wavelength. [1]
• maximum wavelength (of electromagnetic radiation) that causes electrons to
be emitted (from surface of metal)
• (ii) For the metals in Table 7.1, calculate the value of the largest threshold
wavelength. [2]

• 9702/42 February/March 2024

Millikan’s Experiment On Photoelectric emission

• In 1916 Milliken verified Einstein's photoelectric equation

experimentally and provided irrefutable evidence for the photon
model of light.
• He was the first to obtain photoelectrically a value for the Planck
constant which agreed with values from other methods. His
apparatus is shown in simplified form in Fig.
• Monochromatic light from a spec­trometer entered the window of a vacuum
chamber and fell on a metal X mounted on a turntable R controlled from
outside the chamber.
• The photo­electrons emitted were collected by an electrode C and detected by
a sensitive current-measuring device E.
• The min­imum positive potential, called the stopping potential, which had to be
applied to X to prevent the most ener­getic photoelectrons reaching C and
causing current flow, was found for different frequencies of the incident
radiation.
• The procedure was repeated with Y and then Z opposite C. X, Y and Z were
made from the alkali metals lithium, sodium and potassium, since these emit
photoelectrons with light and each one can therefore be studied over a wide
range of frequen­cies.
• Immediately before taking a set of readings, R was rotated and the knife K
adjusted so that a fresh surface was cut on the metal, so eliminating the effects
of surface oxidation.
• The relation between the stopping potential and the maximum kinetic
energy of the photoelectrons is given by the energy equation

• Einstein's equation may then be written

• The graph of against should be a straight line, a fact that Millikan's results
confirmed. Einstein's relation was verified.
• Furthermore, the stop­ping potential for a given frequency of light was
independent of the intensity of the light.
• One of Millikan's graphs is shown in Fig.
He found that whatever the metal all
graphs had the same slope and from
the above equa­tion it is seen to be h/e.
• Knowing e, h can be calculated and the
value obtained agrees with that found
from black body radiation experiments.
• The threshold frequency and the work
function are characteristic for each
metal and may also be deduced from
the graph.
• The values of are in good agreement
with those found from thermionic
emission.