SPEAKING AND

LISTENING
Effective face-to-face communication means
thinking about audience and purpose. Generally
this means using Standard English, listening
carefully and being polite and co-operative.
 AUDIENCE AND PURPOSE

To help you decide on a style of speaking that is suitable for a particular situation or
context you should think about:
• who you are speaking to
• why you are speaking to them
For example, in a conversation with friends you are likely to use a very different style of
speaking and listening than you would in a formal presentation to an unfamiliar audience.
Ask yourself the following key questions when preparing for speaking and listening:
• Who are your audience?
• How old are they?
• What matters to them?
• What do you want them to do or feel?
• Why should they listen to you?
Your answers to these questions should help you focus on how you might best speak to your
audience in an interesting and convincing way.
Be clear about your purpose in presentations and discussions. Is your aim:
• To persuade your audience to do something, eg to stop dropping litter?
• To convince your listeners that your point of view is a fair one to hold?
• To entertain your audience?
• To share important information?
• To give instructions, a report, advice or explanation?
It is a good idea to prepare notes in advance of formal speaking and listening situations and
to practise beforehand in front of people.
 DISCUSSION SKILLS

In a discussion, you should aim to interact and respond to what other people are saying. Talk
with confidence and let others speak. Remember that listening is as important as speaking.
You can show you are listening by:
• making eye contact with the speaker and responding to what they say
• using body language to show co-operation and understanding, for example shrugs and nods
• building on what other people say
• challenging points made by others
A good discussion has a flow to it with people agreeing and disagreeing, giving explanations
for their viewpoints. Each person needs to be allowed time to speak and to share their opinion
before the next person adds their point.
Things to avoid in a group discussion include:
• interruption – except maybe to show agreement, e.g. “Yes, I see”
• cutting people off mid-sentence
• talking over other people
• breaking off into mini-discussions within a big group
• If you find taking part in discussions difficult, try planning your ideas in advance so you know you
have something to share. If you don’t feel strongly about a topic, build on someone else’s point or
ask a question to another member of the group.
• A useful technique is to use open questions. These are questions that cannot be answered with a
single word such as 'yes' or 'no'. Instead the answerer must give more detail. They can lead to a
friendly and useful discussion. ‘What do you think about the character?’ is a more open question
than ‘Did you like him?’ Closed questions like this can be useful sometimes – when summarising a
discussion and making sure everyone has had their say, for example. They can also make people
commit to an opinion one way or another. But on the whole discussions require open questions –
and when you are asked one, you should try to give a full answer.
• Make sure everyone has a chance to speak by inviting opinions. Use formal language and stay
calm, especially when a topic is important to you.
 PREPARING TO DISCUSS
The topic you discuss will always have different viewpoints. Think about as many points of view on your topic as
you can, then aim to cover the most likely in your discussion. Try to cover only the key issues in detail. If you
have time, try to do some research beforehand. Facts, statistics and examples can be powerful convincers in a
discussion.
When taking part in a group discussion try to use spoken Standard English. Think about your voice, eye-contact
and body language. You can agree and disagree without turning your discussion into a confrontation. Show that
you’re listening, and keep the discussion flowing by asking thoughtful questions.
Aim to be:
• polite – respect other people's right to their opinions
• positive – help the conversation develop by being co-operative
• balanced – listen to both sides of the discussion and respond to each
 LISTENING TO OTHERS AND BUILDING ON
ARGUMENTS

• Listen carefully when other people are speaking. For example, if

someone is delivering a speech or making a point in a group
discussion or debate, you need to pay close attention to the points
they are making.
• It can help to take notes as you listen - write a few words or images
down to trigger your memory when it’s your own turn to talk.
You can show that you have been listening by building on people’s arguments. Mention a
point someone has made and then add your own experience or ideas. Here are some
sentence starters to help you with this:
• I agree with your point about…. however…
• I’d like to add to what you said…
• When you talked about… it made me think…
• In addition to your comments about…
Remember, you don’t have to agree with everything a speaker says but conversation of any
kind is a co-operative activity and it starts to fall down when it becomes confrontational or
competitive. The purpose of a discussion is to open up an issue and invite a range of
opinions and interpretations. In this case you can challenge a speaker.
The following sentence starters should be useful:
• I understand what you said about… but I think…
• I disagree with your point about…
• I don’t think what you said about… is valid. I would suggest…
• When you said… I wonder whether you had considered…
• Listening is as important as speaking, so avoid dominating a discussion, even if you have
lots to say, and encourage others to share their views too.
 STANDARD ENGLISH

Standard English is a variety of English most easily understood by a wide audience. It isn’t
the only or ‘correct’ form of English - there are regional dialect words and generational
differences too.

However, Standard English is most suitable for formal occasions or where the audience is large
or unknown. If everyone speaks in a standardised variety of English, we are more likely to
understand each other. It is also the form of English rewarded in GCSE Speaking and
Listening tasks.
INFORMAL LANGUAGE
Standard English is formal - it does not include informal language. We use informal language
in situations where Standard English is not necessary or might not be appropriate.
For example, we might use informal language like colloquialisms when we are with our
friends or family. Your idiolect might include slang words and phrases that are particular to
your age or social group. For example, think of the following words you might use to describe
your sports shoes. Perhaps you would use one of the following:
• sneakers
• daps
• trainers
• runners
• Most speakers would understand the word ‘trainers’, but the other words could be
considered more informal or slang words.
• When using informal language it is also common to use contractions - shortened
versions of phrases such as ‘gonna’ for ‘going to’, ‘innit’ for ‘isn’t it’ and ‘I ain’t’ for ‘I
am not’. These contractions are not appropriate for formal speaking situations, but it
would still be acceptable to use contractions like ‘I’m’ and ‘don’t’.
• Dialect is the form of language used by a group that live in a particular area. If a speaker
is using a dialect, they may use different words, spellings or even order their sentences in
different ways. For example, in Newcastle the word 'gadgie' means man.
• These non-standard English words and forms are easily understood by certain groups of
people, but might be unfamiliar to other groups. Although dialect words can be
acceptable in formal English, it's important to think about your audience
and purpose when deciding whether to use them or not.
 Individual presentations

Presenting is about communicating information and choosing a style suited to meet the
needs of a specific audience. To get started, answer the following questions:
• What is your presentation going to be about?
• Who are you presenting to?
• Why have you chosen this topic?
• What is important about this topic?
• Why should your audience listen?
 “Remember, you will also have to respond to your
audience, answering any questions people may have
about your topic – so be well prepared”.
 PREPARING A PRESENTATION

When preparing a speech it can be useful to choose a topic that already interests you. Then
find an angle or argument to focus on. For example, here are two presentation titles, both
about cats:
• my favourite cats
• cats are better than dogs
The first title is personal and might be interesting to people who know the
speaker, but it is unlikely to be of much interest to others. The second title,
however, is something that other people can have an opinion on and
therefore engage with. It also gives the presenter some structure. Instead of
simply listing all their favourite cats, they can now come up with a series of
examples (maybe using their favourite cats!) that convincingly show why
cats are the best.
Once you have your own title and angle, come up with your main points and list these in a logical order.
• Example
• Cats are better than dogs because:
• they are independent
• they are clever
• they don’t need to be taken for walks
• they make their own minds up about who they like
• they are quiet
Now consider other viewpoints. This is useful because it means you can show that you
have thought about your opponent’s point of view and seem to be more fair-minded. It also
gives you the chance to explain your reasons for disagreeing with these other views before
you are challenged later. Try to find all of the main likely arguments for the other side.
Cats are not better than dogs because:
• they are fussy
• they won’t bring back a stick when you throw it
• they are more likely to run away
Now you can add detail to your speech and find ways to make it interesting. Create a sequence or
structure for your speech in which each point supports your overall argument. You could include some
of the following to make your speech convincing:
• anecdotes, eg "Let me tell you about my last holiday when my cat…"
• facts, eg "Cats are known to be very independent."
• statistics (can be percentages), eg "Nine out of ten cat owners said their pets brought them joy."
• quotations from authority figures, eg "Doctor Jenny Western of Oxford University is quoted as
saying, 'We find cat owners experience less stress than other people.' ”
Finally - practise until you believe that you can deliver your speech with confidence.
ROLE-PLAY
Role-play activities involve pretending to be a different person or taking on a different role. A role could be
developed spontaneously (for example in response to a prop or image) or you might plan carefully to take
on a particular role.
During a role play, think about your:
• voice
• facial expressions
• movement
• posture
• gesture
• For example, you might be asked to create and sustain a particular character you’ve been
reading about.
• In English, these tasks are usually designed to help you explore characters in a fictional
text such as a story or play. It may help you gain a better understanding of a particular
character’s role in the plot.
 PREPARING FOR A CHARACTER ROLE-PLAY

When you are given a role, take some time to think about the following:
• What is your character’s circumstance or story? What has happened to
them in the past and how do they feel now?
• What is their relationship to each of the other characters in the role-play?
• What do they want from the situation?
• Make sure your character is not one-dimensional. We are all complex and your character
needs to be too. Think of some aspects of their personality that might
seem contradictory. Coming up with a character who is not simply 'good' or 'bad' will be
more interesting and believable.
• To be successful in your role-play, think about what you should be exploring and why.
Your character is more than just a part in the plot - they will have been developed to
create an emotional response of some kind, good or bad. In your role-play, keep in mind
the themes and ideas of the original story and how the character has been created to help
the reader or audience understand and even agree, with the themes and ideas.
It can be useful to make notes about your character before the role-play and to think of
words or phrases they would be likely to use.
Example
• Your role-play situation is taken from Shakespeare’s play Macbeth. Here is your task:
Devise a television chat show in which Macbeth and Lady Macbeth are interviewed.
• You are playing the part of the interviewer. As your main job in this role-play is to ask questions, prepare
some in advance. For example:
• How did you feel before, during and after you met the witches?
• What made you think killing a king might be a good idea?
• Have things turned out as you expected?
• Decide what sort of interviewer you would like to play. You could be friendly and supportive of
the Macbeth characters. Or perhaps you will show that you are afraid of them. Use body language, eye-
contact, gesture and voice to create and sustain your role-play as this character.
 PERSONAL PRESENCE

Face-to-face communication includes the words

you say and, more importantly, the way you say
them. Eye-contact, gesture and posture can all add
to the impact of your talk.
BODY LANGUAGE
• Communication is not just about the words you say. It is also about how you say those
words (eg the tone and volume of your voice) and the way you look, stand, sit and move
in relation to your listeners. This is what is meant by body language.
• You can enhance or undermine anything you say in face-to-face communication
depending on how you use your body language. Imagine two people, Kara and Jordan,
both saying “That’s great!” Kara is smiling, has her arms open and is looking at you as
she says this. Jordan is frowning, has his arms folded and is looking at his feet. Notice
how the use of body language results in two very different interpretations and outcomes
of the attempted communication.
Be aware of your body language when you are speaking and listening. You show your
interest in or dislike of a topic with your:
• eye contact
• posture
• gestures
 EYE CONTACT
MAKE EYE CONTACT WITH YOUR LISTENERS, BUT NOT FOR TOO LONG.

• Making frequent but not overly intense eye contact when you speak will reassure your
listener that you are interested in their response. In everyday conversation we naturally
look at the people we talk to. It would seem strange if you were speaking to one person,
while looking at somebody else.
• It’s the same for all face-to-face situations when you use spoken language. You need to
look at the people you are speaking to. You shouldn’t stare intently though as that is likely
to make your listeners uncomfortable.
• In one-to-one situations eye contact can be helpful to show that you are focused on a
particular aspect of the conversation. It shows that you have something important to say
at that moment and also that you care about what the other person is saying.
• If you are presenting to a larger audience, you can move your gaze across your listeners
as you talk, making only very brief eye contact with individuals, holding for maybe a
second or so, before moving on. This will help your listeners to feel included.
POSTURE
We give clues about what we are thinking by the way we sit or stand. That doesn’t mean
that everyone who sits upright is interested or that everyone who slumps is bored. But
paying attention to posture can help us communicate a message more clearly.
Posture is usually interpreted at a subconscious level. Here are some examples of posture
with some generally accepted meanings:
 Posture Meaning

Leaning slightly towards a speaker Suggests interest in a topic

Tilting head to one side Suggests you are listening

Standing with both feet on the ground Suggests confidence

Standing with weight on one foot Suggests uncertainty

You can use your own posture to your advantage when you are in a discussion or giving a
presentation. Show that you are interested and engaged with a speaker by leaning slightly
towards them and tilting your head to one side. Feel the difference yourself, for example,
when you fold your arms and sit back in your chair.
To appear more confident when delivering a speech or presentation:
• plant your feet firmly on the ground, about hip distance apart
• roll your shoulders back
• keep your chin up
• keep your arms relaxed and by your side, unless you are making specific gestures
Even if you don’t feel confident on the inside, this posture will go some way to convincing
your audience that you know what you’re talking about.
 GESTURES

• Gestures are movements that we make naturally when we speak. Some people use lots of
gestures and ‘talk with their hands’. Others use more subtle gestures.
• Not all gestures are universal and some have different meanings according to
your culture.
Here are some common gestures that you might recognise:

Gesture Meaning

Open hands, palms facing down Suggests a calm control

Arms folded Suggests disagreement

Pointing Suggests blame

Nodding Suggests agreement

Holding the chin Suggests listening closely or contemplating

• You can often understand a conversation, at least in part, from gestures alone. By
watching a television conversation with the sound off you can often still understand
what’s going on in general. Gestures indicate emotion and that carries a great deal of
information.
• When you are delivering a presentation or speech think about how you can use gestures
and facial expressions to emphasise certain points you want to make. Plan in advance
where gestures will be effective and practise your talk as if you are rehearsing for a play.
 VOICE

How you speak affects the meaning of your words. Varying your tone, volume and pace can
help engage a listener.
 CONTROLLING YOUR VOICE

The meaning of your words is affected by how you choose to use your voice. For example,
you might whisper if you want to say something that only one person should hear, shout
loudly if you’re trying to get someone’s attention. You might use a sarcastic tone with a
friend and a polite tone with someone you respect. You speak slowly in some situations and
quickly in others.
When using your voice you can change your:
• tone
• pitch and volume
• enunciation
• pace, pauses and silences

Think about your listener and aim to keep them interested by varying your voice, avoiding
rambling or speaking in a monotone. Speak a little more loudly and slowly to emphasise a
point or draw your listeners in with a whisper.
You can use your voice to:
• emphasise a point
• draw in your audience
• create humour
 TONE

Your tone of voice, like your body language, can affect the meaning of the words you say.
In successful communication, your tone of voice must match your message.
In a presentation, discussion or conversation you can change your tone at different stages to
help keep your audience’s interest. A speech delivered in the same tone throughout (ie a
monotone) will be boring as it seems to lack the necessary emotion and conviction.
Varying your tone will make your talk more engaging and convincing. Listen to Benedick’s
speech from Act 2 Scene 3 of Shakespeare’s Much Ado About Nothing. This isn’t a natural
conversation, but notice how the actor creates realism by varying his tone to show the
character’s surprise and increasing enthusiasm for the idea that Beatrice just might actually
love him.
 PITCH AND VOLUME

• Keep in mind how high, low or loud your voice is (volume) and how it rises and falls
while you talk (pitch). Projecting doesn’t mean shouting: it means adding energy and life
to the voice and body.
• Use volume to draw attention to important sections of your talk, either becoming quieter
to draw your listeners in, or becoming louder to emphasise a point.
 ENUNCIATION

• Enunciation is when you speak your words clearly. Even if you have a strong accent you can
be understood clearly when you take your time to articulate your vowels and consonants
clearly. Make sure your vowels (A, E, I, O, U) are sounded and shaped and be sure to
pronounce each of your consonants – but do this naturally and expressively.
• It might feel unnatural to do this at first and it won’t be quite the way you speak in everyday
conversation; but if you’re in a formal situation, or delivering a presentation, clear diction will
help make sure your message is understood.
 INDIVIDUAL RESEARCHED PRESENTATION

In an individual researched presentation you will need to give a presentation in front of an

audience. You’ll need to research your topic beforehand and may need to answer questions
from the audience.
You will be expected to deliver an individual oral presentation in front of your teacher and
some of your classmates. You will be expected to present information in a clear, coherent
and interesting way, focusing not only on what you say but how you say it.
• You may be given a theme or be asked to choose a topic to talk about. It is important that
before you give your presentation, you prepare for it thoroughly and research and plan
what you intend to say. Your talk will be expected to last no more than 10 minutes. This
includes time at the end for questions from the audience. You will feel much more
confident about your presentation if you know that you are fully prepared.
 RESEARCH SKILLS

Your presentation will require a certain amount of research to be completed before you
present your chosen topic. Research skills are important and can be used to help you
prepare and revise for other exams but only if you approach them in the right way. The
following lists 'Things to do' and 'Things not to do' will help you approach your research in
a productive way.
 THINGS TO DO

Make sure you are fully equipped before you begin your research - you will need a notepad,
pen and highlighters.
Before you begin your research, make sure you are certain which topic you are going to be
covering in your presentation. You don't want to spend hours researching one topic, only to
change your mind later.
Make headings under which you write your notes. This will help you to remain organised
and save time when you begin to write your presentation. If your chosen topic was 'The
Olympics', you might make headings like 'different sports', 'locations around the world', or
'history'.
 THINGS TO DO

You could use a library and/or the internet for your research. If you are using the internet,
make sure you check several different sites to check information is correct. Remember
that some internet information is not verified.
If you make your notes on a PC or laptop make sure you save your work regularly.
 THINGS TO DO

Your research should be an activity where you remain fully engaged and alert, not simply
one where you endlessly make notes without thinking about what you write. Consider
carefully what you read and only make notes on the facts that you think are important.
Make a note of where your information came from, such as the web address or book title,
just in case you need to go back and check something at a later date.
 THINGS NOT TO DO

Don’t simply print off huge amounts of information from the internet and convince yourself
that you have completed lots of research. It is important to read the information carefully
and only use the details that you think are relevant to your presentation.
Don’t just photocopy pages or copy facts down from a book either. It's more productive to
also highlight the passages that will help you and create your own notes from these. You
must have a clear idea of what you are looking for before you begin your research.
Be careful about which internet sites you use. Some are written by students as projects and
they might not be completely accurate. Try to use trusted ones or ones hosted by well-
known providers.