Analysing fiction

Fiction texts types

 Prose fiction

There are different types of fiction texts, the main types are:
 prose
 poetry
 drama
Fiction texts have a creative element to them and tend to use literary devices. Prose fiction from the 19th
century tends to have longer, more complex sentences, and often has more description than modern fiction texts
do.
Within each type of fiction, there are different genres. For example, there are different genres of prose fiction. In
the 19th century the following prose genres were popular:
 gothic fiction
 realist fiction
 romance fiction
 crime fiction
 Arthur Conan Doyle is well known for developing the crime fiction genre. His character Sherlock Holmes
appeared in several short stories and novels, including the The Sign of Four in 1890.
 Mary Shelley’s novel Frankenstein (1818) is an example of gothic fiction. This novel is based in a series of
gloomy settings and has a supernatural theme and an atmosphere of terror and horror.
Here are some other celebrated fiction writers from the 19th century:
 Jane Austen (1775 – 1817) - Pride and Prejudice, Emma and Sense and Sensibility
 Charles Dickens (1812-1870) - Bleak House, Oliver Twist and David Copperfield
 Charlotte Bronte (1816 -1855) - Jane Eyre and Villette
 George Eliot (1819-1880) - Middlemarch and The Mill on the Floss
 Thomas Hardy (1840 – 1928) - Tess of the d'Urbervilles and Far from the Madding Crowd
 Different forms of prose fiction

Most prose fiction is presented in the form of a novel, novella or short story.
The word ‘novel’ comes from Latin and Italian origin and means 'new’. Novels became popular with readers in
the 18th century, so are a fairly new type of fiction compared with poetry and drama.
Prose texts are usually defined by their length, though there are other differences:
 Short stories

 Tell a complete story in a few thousand words.

 Have a limited number of characters.
 Are sometimes more about conveying an atmosphere than plot.
 Often leave questions unanswered for the reader to think about.
Some writers are famous for their short stories. Edgar Allen Poe is a famous American short story writer from
the 19th century. His short story The Murders in the Rue Morgue (1841) is considered to be one of the first
examples of a detective story.
 Novellas

 Are mid-way in length between short stories and a full-length novel.

 Usually have one plot-line.
 Are not always divided into chapters.
Some novellas you may have heard of are Charles Dickens’ A Christmas Carol or John Steinbeck’s Of Mice and
Men. Although these forms are short, they provide the reader with a vivid snapshot of life and have well
developed characters.
 Novels

 Are a relatively modern form of literature compared to plays and poetry.

 Often have a number of different plot lines which can support or contrast each other.
 Usually have several characters and their stories.
 Are often divided into chapters.
 Normally tie up all the loose ends by the end of the book.
Some famous novels which you might have heard of include: Jane Eyre by Charlotte Brontë, Lord of the
Flies by William Golding, and Vanity Fair by William Thackeray.
 setting

The setting of a text is the place and time used within the text. This may be:
 in the past, present day or the future
 a time of day
 a particular time of year
 a specific geographical location - such as a named city or country
 a type of place or event - like a school or a wedding
 Setting is an important part of how a text achieves its effect. It can echo the
themes of the narrative. For example, the dark streets of Victorian London echo
the theme of immorality in Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde.
 The time of day or year when a text is set also adds to its effect. For example, a school at night is a very
different place to a school during the day. A ghost story would probably work better at night as it would add
a sense of uncertainty and fear and create more tension for the reader.
 The writer may use specific techniques to create a particular effect. For example, the writer could
use pathetic fallacy to give emphasis to a character’s emotions -
“The memory of that afternoon lay heavy upon her. All around the snow smothered the
landscape.”
In this description, the character’s negative emotional state is reflected by the weather.
Historical context is important when understanding the setting of a piece of fiction.
A writer has chosen to use a particular point in history for a reason. A reader may make certain judgements and
assumptions about this historical setting. For example, a reader might assume that a piece of fiction set during
World War Two will be serious and moving. The writer could meet these expectations or surprise the reader in
some way.
Questions to focus on setting:

 What does the reader learn about this place and time?
 How is this place and time important to theme and character?
 What techniques does the writer use to create atmosphere?
 How does the language influence the reader’s response to this setting?
 How setting is used

In this extract from Charles Dickens's Great Expectations, the description of the weather creates a negative
atmosphere.
Day after day, a vast heavy veil had been driving over London from the East, and it drove still, as if in the
East there were an Eternity of cloud and wind. So furious had been the gusts, that high buildings in town had
had the lead stripped off their roofs; and in the country, trees had been torn up, and sails of windmills carried
away; and gloomy accounts had come in from the coast, of shipwreck and death. Violent blasts of rain had
accompanied these rages of wind, and the day just closed as I sat down to read had been the worst of all.
Charles Dickens, Great Expectations, Chapter 39
 Example analysis

 The use of the metaphor, “…a vast heavy veil…” makes the weather seem oppressive.
 The use of the adjective “vast” creates a subtle alliteration with the noun “veil”, highlighting the contrast
of a delicate item with the word “heavy”.
 The long, multi-clause sentence at the start of the extract underlines the relentless feel of the “...cloud and
wind.”
 The writer also uses personification - “So furious had been the gusts…rages of wind…”
 Example analysis

 The words ‘furious’ and ‘rages’ establish a feeling of gloom, as if the weather’s emotions are mirroring the
accounts of “…shipwreck and death.”
 The noun phrase “…violent blasts of rain” also creates a negative atmosphere, the word ‘blasts’ creates a
harsh, physical impression on the reader.
 This is reinforced by a general semantic field of violence - “…stripped…torn…blasts…rages.”
 The structure of the paragraph also establishes the grim, relentless mood. For example, it starts with the
phrase “Day after day…” and includes the frequent repetition of the connective ‘and’.
 The final phrase “…worst of all” leaves the reader with a lasting, negative impression of the setting.
 Themes

 Themes are the main ideas or meaning that run through a text and may be shown directly or indirectly. When
working out themes it helps to look closely at the language choice, setting and characters.
Identifying themes and ideas
Although a text may appear to be about events that take place, the themes are the important ideas and meanings
that run throughout the text. For example, Lord of the Flies by William Golding is about a group of school boys
stranded on an island. However, the writer is also presenting the reader with some important ideas - themes like
the loss of innocence and the conflict between violence and reason.
Other common themes in fiction include:
 power
 love
 money
 death
 appearance and reality
 heroism
 technology in society
 friendship
One of the easiest ways to spot themes is through motifs. A motif is a repeated image or idea in a text that helps
develop a theme. It helps to know that the word ‘motif’ comes from the French word for pattern. For example, in
the novella Of Mice and Men, there is a focus on the images of hands throughout the text. The image of hands
could develop various themes, including violence and identity.
 Identifying a theme in an extract

 In an extract you might only be able to say what themes are suggested. When working with a short extract of
a fiction text, it helps to look closely at the language choices to work out the themes.
Example
 Look at this extract from the novel Oliver Twist by Charles Dickens. Try to identify the themes that run
through this extract.
What an excellent example of the power of dress, young Oliver Twist was! Wrapped in the blanket which
had hitherto formed his only covering, he might have been the child of a nobleman or a beggar; it would have
been hard for the haughtiest stranger to have assigned him his proper station in society. But now that he was
enveloped in the old calico robes which had grown yellow in the same service, he was badged and ticketed, and
fell into his place at once--a parish child--the orphan of a workhouse--the humble, half-starved drudge--to be
cuffed and buffeted through the world--despised by all, and pitied by none. Oliver cried lustily. If he could have
known that he was an orphan, left to the tender mercies of church-wardens and overseers, perhaps he would
have cried the louder.
Oliver Twist, Charles Dickens
There are plenty of hints that poverty and class are important themes. For example:
 Oliver is an “…orphan of a workhouse…”
 There is reference to “…his proper station in society…fell into his place at once…”
 It is suggested that everyone has a position given to them at birth – their place in the class system.
 The emotive, choice of vocabulary, “despised by all, and pitied by none…”, suggests Oliver will suffer
because of his low position in society.
 The satirical tone of the language suggests the writer does not approve of this situation.
Identifying the themes of a text is an act of inference. You can make links between the themes of a text to the
characters, the setting and the language.
Don’t confuse the topic with the theme. For example the topic of a text could be two friends travelling around
looking for work on ranches, but the themes might be friendship and the pointlessness of dreams as seen in Of
Mice and Men.
Exploring themes
When you focus on a theme within a text, expand your exploration beyond simply identifying main themes, like
hate, family, relationships, power. Instead look at how themes relate to each other, by exploring conflicting ideas
and the clash of opposites at the heart of them.
 For example:

 conflict - us versus them, friends versus foes, the state versus the citizen
 family - feelings of safety versus desire for independence
 love - desire for something forbidden versus attainable love
 power - the individual versus the state, man versus nature
 place - an idea of paradise versus reality, the idea of home versus exile
 nature - the separation of man from nature, natural beauty versus violence
 An interesting theme involves a clash of opposites. Love as a theme is more interesting when there is
conflict. If two people meet, fall in love and there are no problems, then it is not a very interesting story.
Without something trying to stop love, the story has nowhere to go.
 You can give structure and energy to an analysis essay by discussing the opposite sides of a theme.
 The following extract is taken from a novel called Tess of the d’Urbervilles and shows a conversation
between Tess, a working class girl, and Alec, a wealthy man of the upper classes.
He took a few steps away from her, but, returning, said,
‘Bye the bye, Tess, your father has a new cob to-day. Somebody gave it to him.’
‘Somebody? You!’
D’Urberville nodded.
‘O how very good of you that is!’ she exclaimed, with a painful sense of awkwardness of having to thank him just then.
‘And the children have some toys.’
‘I didn’t know – you ever sent them anything!’ she murmured, much moved. ‘I almost wish you had not – yet, I almost wish
it!’
‘Why, dear?’
‘It – hampers me so.’
‘Tessy – don’t you love me ever so little now?’
‘I’m grateful,’ she reluctantly admitted. ‘But I fear I do not –’
Tess of the d’Urbervilles, Thomas Hardy
This extract suggests some conflicting themes. For example:
 unrequited love
 power in relationships
 conflict in relationships
 differences between the classes
 Writing about themes

 Writing about themes could give your analysis of an extract a deeper response and show that you are
thinking about the ideas the writer is presenting.
When you are analysing an extract, think about the following:
 How does the language choice suggest a theme?
 Are there any patterns in the language that give emphasis to a theme?
 Do particular images suggest a theme?
 How does the description of the setting suggest the theme?
 Which events help to develop the themes in the extract?
 How do the characters in the extract represent the theme?
 Are there any language choices that suggest a clash, opposites or conflict of themes?
Example
 The opening of Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen presents the reader with some interesting themes.
It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune must be in want of a wife.
However little known the feelings or views of such a man may be on his first entering a neighbourhood, this truth is so well fixed in the minds of the surrounding
families, that he is considered as the rightful property of some one or other of their daughters.
"My dear Mr. Bennet," said his lady to him one day, "have you heard that Netherfield Park is let at last?"
Mr. Bennet replied that he had not.
"But it is," returned she; "for Mrs. Long has just been here, and she told me all about it."
Mr. Bennet made no answer.
"Do not you want to know who has taken it?" cried his wife impatiently.
"You want to tell me, and I have no objection to hearing it."
This was invitation enough.
"Why, my dear, you must know, Mrs. Long says that Netherfield is taken by a young man of large fortune from the north of England; that he came down on Monday in a
chaise and four to see the place, and was so much delighted with it that he agreed with Mr. Morris immediately; that he is to take possession before Michaelmas, and
some of his servants are to be in the house by the end of next week."
Pride and Prejudice, Jane Austen
The author’s use of language in this extract presents the reader with some important themes:
 In the opening statement, the writer uses humour and irony - “…a single man in possession of a good
fortune must be in want of a wife.”
 Although the statement suggests that a wealthy man wants a wife, there is an implication that a woman
would want a husband that is wealthy - “…rightful property…of their daughters…”
 The use of the noun ‘..property..’ in relation to marriage suggests that it is an economical arrangement.
 This focus on wealth is also suggested by the references to Mr.Bingley’s “chaise and four” and “large
fortune”.
 The contrast between Mr. and Mrs Bennets’ dialogue is also comical – Mr Bennet’s silence and then sarcasm
shows his lack of interest, in contrast to his gossipy wife - “You want to tell me, and I have no objection to
hearing it.” The use of the italics suggests his sarcastic tone.
 His restraint is contrasted with her chattiness - “Mr Bennet made no answer.”
 The reader is presented with a married couple who seem mismatched.
These language choices combine to suggest two themes:
 money and wealth
 marriage
 Characterisation and narrative voice

What is characterisation?
 Characterisation is the way writers create characters and make them believable. When writing about texts, it
is easy to treat characters as real people. Try to remember that the author is creating characters using
language.
Think about the set of characters in a text:
 What are the characters like? How do you know this?
 What do the characters say (dialogue)?
 What do the characters do?
 How are they described?
 How are they seen by other characters?
Mr Darcy and Elizabeth Bennet from Jane Austen's novel Pride and Prejudice are widely recognised fictional
characters
Characterisation example
Character can be shown through the things characters do, what they say, what they look like, and what they
own.
This extract from Charles Dickens’s Hard Times introduces Mr Gradgrind, the headmaster of a school.
What do we learn about this character from the writer’s choice of language?
“Now, what I want is, Facts. Teach these boys and girls nothing but Facts. Facts alone are wanted in life. Plant
nothing else, and root out everything else. You can only form the minds of reasoning animals upon Facts:
nothing else will ever be of any service to them. This is the principle on which I bring up my own children, and
this is the principle on which I bring up these children. Stick to Facts, sir!”
The scene was a plain, bare, monotonous vault of a school-room, and the speaker's square forefinger emphasised
his observations by underscoring every sentence with a line on the schoolmaster's sleeve. The emphasis was
helped by the speaker's square wall of a forehead, which had his eyebrows for its base, while his eyes found
commodious cellarage in two dark caves, overshadowed by the wall. The emphasis was helped by the speaker's
mouth, which was wide, thin, and hard set. The emphasis was helped by the speaker's voice, which was
inflexible, dry, and dictatorial. The emphasis was helped by the speaker's hair, which bristled on the skirts of his
bald head, a plantation of firs to keep the wind from its shining surface, all covered with knobs, like the crust of
a plum pie, as if the head had scarcely warehouse-room for the hard facts stored inside.
Hard Times, Charles Dickens
 Analysis

 The writer chooses to use dialogue to give an immediate impression of Gradgrind’s character.
 He uses a lot of commands in his speech, “Stick to Facts, sir!” This suggests that he’s used to being in
charge. He emphasises ‘Facts’ by using the capital letter ‘F’. This suggests he has a narrow view of
education.
 Although the narrator seems to be describing the character in quite a factual way – suggesting he’s neutral,
the reader can see that the narrator does not approve of Gradgrind.
 The negative impression of the Mr.Gradgrind is also strengthened by the description of the surroundings, the
school-room is “…plain, bare, monotonous…”
 This triplet of negative words established a pattern in the extract. For example, later the writer includes the
triplet “…wide, thin, and hard…” and then “…inflexible, dry, and dictatorial…”
 These groups of adjectives emphasise an undesirable view of the character for the reader.
 The writer uses the extended metaphor of a building to describe Gradgrind’s appearance. For example, his
“square wall of a forehead” and his eyes are “…commodious cellarage in two dark caves…” This metaphor
is also picked up in the final line in the reference to the “…warehouse room…” of his head. The effect of
these images is quite comical and perhaps also hints at his severe and hard character.
 Characters and contrasts

 It’s important to think about how characters change and interact with each other, as this could suggest some
important themes or ideas in the text. The writer may use language to encourage the reader to respond to a
character in a certain way.
 Look for contrasts or contradictions - not just between characters, but within each character. In real life no
one is simply good or bad. All effective characters have more than one side.
Typical contrasts between characters
 Characters who think versus characters who feel.
 Characters who talk versus characters who act.
 Sociable characters versus solitary characters.
 Predators who take advantage of people versus characters who are victims.
 Characters who want one thing versus those who want another.
Typical contrasts within a character
 A person who says one thing, and does another.
 A character who sacrifices something important to pursue a goal of their own.
 A character who wants two opposing things.
Example
 This extract is a description of a character from Jane Austen’s 19th century novel Pride and Prejudice. Mr
Darcy is one of the main characters in the story. What do we learn about him from this extract?
Mr. Bingley was good-looking and gentlemanlike; he had a pleasant countenance, and easy, unaffected manners.
His sisters were fine women, with an air of decided fashion. His brother-in-law, Mr Hurst, merely looked the
gentleman; but his friend Mr Darcy soon drew the attention of the room by his fine, tall person, handsome
features, noble mien; and the report which was in general circulation within five minutes after his entrance, of
his having ten thousand a year. The gentlemen pronounced him to be a fine figure of a man, the ladies declared
he was much handsomer than Mr Bingley, and he was looked at with great admiration for about half the
evening, till his manners gave a disgust which turned the tide of his popularity; for he was discovered to be
proud, to be above his company, and above being pleased.
Pride and Prejudice, Jane Austen
 Analysis

 There’s a contrast between Mr.Bingley’s “…unaffected manners…” and Darcy’s manners which “…gave a
disgust…”
 The choice of the emotive word ‘disgust’ suggests their feelings are strong, as the word has connotations of
disapproval and loathing.
 This is in marked contrast to the feelings of “…great admiration…” that people felt towards Darcy at first.
 The use of the metaphor “…turned the tide of his popularity…” also gives emphasis to the strength of this
change of feeling.
 All of the men in the extract are judged against the standard of being a ‘gentleman’. Mr Bingley is
“gentlemanlike...” in contrast to Mr Hurst who “…merely looked the gentleman…”
 It is implied, at first, that Darcy appears to be the superior Gentleman. There is a contrast between the
mild adjective ‘pleasant’ used to describe Mr. Bingley and the words chosen to describe Darcy - “fine, tall…
handsome…noble…fine figure…”
 The repetition of the word ‘fine’ is significant and it has suggestions of quality and superiority. His wealth
and status, it is implied, has contributed to his ‘proud’ manner.
 Darcy and Bingley are also directly compared - “…he was much handsomer than Mr. Bingley.”
 The writer uses contrasts between characters and also contrasts between the positive first impression of
Darcy and then the negative final judgement of his behaviour - “…he was discovered to be proud…”
When you are writing about characterisation, don't just describe what
characters are like. Examine the language techniques used by the
writer to create the character.
 What is narrative voice?

 Narrative voice is the perspective the story is told from. The writer chooses a narrative voice carefully, as it
can have an important effect on the story and the reader’s response.
 Different types of Narrative
Example
Voice

I watched as the boat sank. I felt a

A character within the story is
mixture of relief and guilt. I turned
telling the story. Some of the main
First person to take the rudder, pushing away
personal pronouns used are I, my,
the thoughts that crawled like ants
me, we.
into my mind.

You watch as the boat slowly

Not commonly used by writers. sinks. You feel relief mixed with
The personal guilt. You turn and take the
Second person
pronouns you and your are used rudder, pushing away the thoughts
throughout. that crawl like ants into your
mind.

The story is being told by the
voice of someone who is not a
Third person character in the story. The main
personal pronouns used
are she, he and they.
The story is being told by a voice
who shows they know more than
the characters in the story – the
Third person omniscient
narrator is all knowing. The main
personal pronouns used
are she, he and they.
George watched as the boat
slowly sank. He felt relief mixed
with guilt. He turned to take the
rudder, pushing away the
thoughts that crawled like ants
into his mind.
George watched as the boat sank.
He felt relief mixed with guilt. Six
miles away a group of fishermen
watched the horizon, looking for
signs of the storm they could feel
in the air.
When thinking about narrative voice, think about the following:
 How does the reader feel about the narrator?
 Does the reader trust the narrator? Do they seem reliable?
 Is the voice of the narrator the author or someone else?
 How does the narrator choose to show us this fictional world?
Examples of narrative voice
 Diary of a Nobody by George and Weedon Grossmith is a first person narrative. The story is told from the
perspective of a character called Charles Pooter. We get a sense of his character from the language he uses.
On moving my hand above the surface of the water, I experienced the greatest fright I ever received in the whole
course of my life; for imagine my horror on discovering my hand, as I thought, full of blood. My first thought
was that I had ruptured an artery, and was bleeding to death, and should be discovered, later on, looking like a
second Marat, as I remember seeing him in Madame Tussaud’s. My second thought was to ring the bell, but
remembered there was no bell to ring. My third was, that there was nothing but the enamel paint, which had
dissolved with boiling water. I stepped out of the bath, perfectly red all over, resembling the Red Indians I have
seen depicted at an East-End theatre. I determined not to say a word to Carrie, but to tell Farmerson to come on
Monday and paint the bath white.
Diary of a Nobody, George and Weedon Grossmith
In this extract the writer uses an omniscient narrator. This narrator is not a character, but a voice that knows
the thoughts and feelings of all the characters in the story.
Margaret, the eldest of the four, was sixteen, and very pretty, being plump and fair, with large eyes, plenty of soft
brown hair, a sweet mouth, and white hands, of which she was rather vain. Fifteen-year-old Jo was very tall,
thin, and brown, and reminded one of a colt, for she never seemed to know what to do with her long limbs,
which were very much in her way. She had a decided mouth, a comical nose, and sharp, gray eyes, which
appeared to see everything, and were by turns fierce, funny, or thoughtful. Her long, thick hair was her one
beauty, but it was usually bundled into a net, to be out of her way. Round shoulders had Jo, big hands and feet, a
flyaway look to her clothes, and the uncomfortable appearance of a girl who was rapidly shooting up into a
woman and didn't like it. Elizabeth, or Beth, as everyone called her, was a rosy, smooth-haired, bright-eyed girl
of thirteen, with ashy manner, a timid voice, and a peaceful expression which was seldom disturbed.
Little Women by Louisa May Alcott
Analysing narrative voice in an extract
Example
 In this extract, taken from Arthur Conan Doyle’s novel A Study in Scarlet, the narrator Dr. Watson shares his
impressions of Sherlock Holmes with the reader. What is the effect of the narrative voice in this extract?
As the weeks went by, my interest in him and my curiosity as to his aims in life, gradually deepened and
increased. His very person and appearance were such as to strike the attention of the most casual observer. In
height he was rather over six feet, and so excessively lean that he seemed to be considerably taller. His eyes
were sharp and piercing, save during those intervals of torpor to which I have alluded; and his thin, hawk-like
nose gave his whole expression an air of alertness and decision. His chin, too, had the prominence and
squareness which mark the man of determination. His hands were invariably blotted with ink and stained with
chemicals, yet he was possessed of extraordinary delicacy of touch, as I frequently had occasion to observe
when I watched him manipulating his fragile philosophical instruments. The reader may set me down as a
hopeless busybody, when I confess how much this man stimulated my curiosity, and how often I endeavoured to
break through the reticence which he showed on all that concerned himself. Before pronouncing judgment,
however, be it remembered, how objectless was my life, and how little there was to engage my attention. My
health forbade me from venturing out unless the weather was exceptionally genial, and I had no friends who
would call upon me and break the monotony of my daily existence. Under these circumstances, I eagerly hailed
the little mystery which hung around my companion, and spent much of my time in endeavouring to unravel it.
A Study in Scarlett, Arthur Conan Doyle
 The character of Sherlock Holmes is presented to the reader through the eyes of Dr. Watson and our
impression of his character is controlled by his judgement.
 The choice of vocabulary shows Dr. Watson’s admiration of Holmes. His eyes are “sharp and piercing…”
and he is a “…man of determination…”
 The choice of a bird simile to describe Holmes' appearance, “his thin, hawk-like nose gave his whole
expression an air of alertness and decision…”, shows that the narrative voice is keen to focus on the
character’s intelligence.
 The first person narrator, Dr. Watson, addresses us directly - “The reader may set me down as a hopeless
busybody…” This makes the reader feel more involved in the story and feel a warmth for the honesty of the
narrator.
 Our affection for the narrator is further developed by his confession of having “…no friends who would call
upon me…” We, as the readers, feel as if we are being invited into this world, sharing the thoughts and
feelings of the narrator.
 We share his interest in the mystery of Holmes’s character - “…I eagerly hailed the little mystery which
hung around my companion…” The use of the adverb ‘eagerly’ gives Dr. Watson an enthusiasm that endears
him to the reader.
 The narrative voice of Dr. Watson establishes the reader’s fascination in the character of Sherlock Holmes -
“…my interest in him and my curiosity…” The use of the personal pronouns here deepens our connection
with Watson, the reader also feels a sense of curiosity. This effect would not have been achieved with the use
of the third person perspective.
 Annotating texts

Annotating is when you add notes or comments to a text; this

could also include underlining or circling individual words or
phrases.
Annotating is a useful way to keep a track of what you notice while
you’re reading – the notes and marks you make can focus on particular
details in the text. For example, if you were focusing on setting, you
could circle all the words and phrases used to describe a place.
There are many ways to annotate texts. Try out different approaches to see what works best for you. Examples of
common techniques include:
 circling or underlining words or phrases that are interesting or important and writing notes in the margin
 using different coloured highlighters to pick out different ideas, techniques or details
 using one margin to make a note of literary devices and the other margin to add your own responses
Closely annotating texts is an effective way to practise analysing a piece of fiction.
However, in exam conditions, annotations need to be brief and a quick way of responding to a new text. You can
use your annotations to pick out details from the text and then develop your analysis of these details in your
written response.
 Tips for annotating quickly in exams

 Use abbreviations for longer words (eg allit for alliteration).

 Don’t worry about making it look pretty - make your marks and notes functional.
 Use marks that you understand, for example arrows or question marks to focus your attention on certain
details.
 Don’t worry about annotating everything: be selective.
 What to look for when annotating

Annotating structure
 Read the text and look for patterns in the structure, for example:
 Sentence length and type - eg single or multi-clause sentences.
 Paragraph lengths and structure - eg focus on how the paragraph opens and closes.
 Repeated words and phrases.
 The order of ideas in the extract - eg where does the narrative start? Does the focus shift?
Annotating language and literary techniques
 Highlight any interesting language features in the text.
 Pick out examples of literary devices that stand out because they’re unusual, or because they link closely to
the character, theme or setting.
 Highlight individual words to explore closely - those with particular connotations or ones that seem to relate
to the theme of the text.
Annotating characterisation and voice
 Pick out key elements which show the development of characters.
 Look for phrases that reveal key details about characters. For example, you might highlight an example of
where a character’s appearance is linked to a theme.
 Highlight points where narrative perspective is shown through the language.
 Is the author using the perspective for a particular effect? Pick out examples to support your ideas.
Annotating for themes and ideas
 Highlight any words or phrases that link to the main themes or a particular semantic field.
Example
Here is an example of some selective annotations. The student is focused
on the language choices in this extract:
 metaphor - ‘Nana’s fine hair floated in a halo around her head’ – positive connotations
 sibilance – the repeated use of the letter s adds softness here
 personification – their ‘dark fingers’ is sinister, but then contrasts with the adverb ‘gently’
 personal pronouns – the use of ‘our’, ‘us’ and ‘we’ – sense of family
 tricolon of three single clause sentences – creates rhythm and interest for reader
 Responding to a fiction text

When responding to a fiction text you will be asked to focus

on a particular area, picking out specific details or
responding more fully with a close analysis.
How to analyse a fiction extract

 In an analytical response, you should show how language and structure create meaning. You could also
explore the effect on the reader. An analytical response uses evidence from the text to make clear points.
 Whatever the focus of the task, aim to focus on HOW the writer has used specific techniques or choices to
create meaning, rather than WHAT the text is saying or WHO it is about.
 The key to giving a relevant response is to focus on the question. What are you being asked to do? Circle the
key words in the question and remember your focus as you start reading the extract.
An exam question might focus on:
 characters
 narrative voice
 themes and ideas
 language
 structure
 the effect on the reader
 The next stage is to annotate your extract and find evidence to support your answer. Highlight, circle or
underline key parts of the text that you will be able to use as evidence for your response.
 When looking at an extract, try and read it more than once. First read the entire extract from beginning to
end and annotate any language or structural details that interest you. If you have time, do another read-
through annotating other important words and phrases.
 Understanding the question

The key to a successful response is to focus on the question and

understand what you are being asked to do. Below are a few examples
of the types of questions you may be required to answer. Use the marks
available for each question as a guide on how much to write.
 Structuring a paragraph

Use each paragraph to make at least one main point. A paragraph could contain:
 a link to the focus of the question - try and use the key word or phrase from the question
 some evidence from the text to support what you think - this will probably include something on language or
structure
 a discussion of the evidence, and links to any other possible evidence
Using a few connectives could help link your ideas:
 Firstly...
 On the one hand...
 On the other hand...
 Similarly...
 In contrast...
 However...
 Alternatively...
 Finally...
There are lots of different ways to structure a paragraph when
analysing fiction, but don’t be too tied down to one formula.
It’s important to vary your structure depending on your ideas
and how you choose to link evidence together.
Here are just a few common formulas to be aware of:
 PEE - point/evidence/explain
 PEEL - point/evidence/explain/link to point
 PEA - point/evidence/analysis
 SEAL - state your point/evidence/analyse/link
 WET - words/effect/techniques
 RATS - reader’s response/author’s intention/theme/structure
Think about which ones you find useful. What are the limitations of each approach?
 Using quotations and close analysis

 To support your points, you need to use quotations and examples. Quotations should be kept short and to the
point. Using just a few words is more powerful than copying out chunks of text - it shows you are being
selective. You should also be careful to copy accurately.
 Put the quotation inside your own sentence, rather than putting it in the middle of a page and then
commenting on it. This is called embedding a quotation.
So rather than:
 "He flew like a butterfly." This is an example of a simile, which shows that he was light and graceful.
 Or:
 The author uses similes, eg "he flew like a butterfly."
 You would write:
 The author uses the simile of the boy flying "like a butterfly" to convey the impression that he is light and
graceful.
 The author uses the simile of the boy flying "like a butterfly" to convey the impression that he is light and
graceful.
 Making the most of quotations

A close analysis of the language in the quotation can be used

to support your point.
There are several ways you can do this:
 Focus on a word from the quotation and write about why it was chosen by the writer.
 Write about the connotations of the word, eg the word ‘snake’ could have connotations of evil and might be
used by the writer to create an ominous atmosphere. The word ‘home’ has the dictionary meaning of ‘a place
where someone lives’, but the word also has positive connotations of warmth and family.
 The context of a word will also be important when you are analysing its effect. How the word is used in the
sentence and paragraph may affect the connotations of that word.
 The quotation may contain a metaphor, simile, or other language technique – what is the effect of the
technique?
 Make sure you name the literary technique as part of your analysis.
 Remember that you don’t need to give a definition of the technique - just focus on the effect.
 Do the language choices in the quotation link to other parts of the extract? Can you see a pattern in the
way the writer is using language?
 What is the reader’s response to the language in the quotation?
 Example analysis
 During the whole of a dull, dark, and soundless day in the autumn of the year, when the clouds hung
oppressively low in the heavens, I had been passing alone, on horseback, through a singularly dreary tract of
country; and at length found myself, as the shades of the evening drew on, within view of the melancholy
House of Usher. I know not how it was - but, with the first glimpse of the building, a sense of insufferable
gloom pervaded my spirit. I say insufferable; for the feeling was unrelieved by any of that half-pleasurable,
because poetic, sentiment, with which the mind usually receives even the sternest natural images of the
desolate or terrible. I looked upon the scene before me - upon the mere house, and the simple landscape
features of the domain - upon the bleak walls - upon the vacant eye-like windows - upon a few rank sedges -
and upon a few white trunks of decayed trees - with an utter depression of soul which I can compare to no
earthly sensation more properly than to the after-dream of the reveller upon opium - the bitter lapse into
everyday life - the hideous dropping off of the veil. There was an iciness, a sinking, a sickening of the heart -
an unredeemed dreariness of thought which no goading of the imagination could torture into aught of the
sublime. What was it - I paused to think - what was it that so unnerved me in the contemplation of the House
of Usher?
 The Fall of the House of Usher, Edgar Allan Poe