Calculus &

Analytical
Geometry
(MATH- 101)
Instructor: Dr. Sidra Shafiq (sidra.shafiq@seecs.edu.pk)
 Limits

 Book: Thomas Calculus (14th Edition) by George B. Thomas, Maurice D. Weir, Joel R. Hass, Frank R. Giordano
 Chapter: 2 (2.2, 2.4)
Limits
 An Introduction To Limits
 Laws for Calculating Limits
 One-Sided Limits
 Limits Involving Infinity
Limits
Approaching ...
Sometimes we can't work something out directly ... but we can see what
it should be as we get closer and closer!
Limits
The function:

is not defined at , so its graph has a

“hole” at .
Limits
However, values of may be computed near

As approaches 2
x 1.9 1.99 1.999 2.001 2.01 2.1
f(x) 3.9 3.99 3.999 4.001 4.01 4.1
approaches 4
The values of get closer and closer to 4 as gets closer and closer to 2.

We say that

“the limit of as approaches 2 equals 4”

and write
x 4 2
lim  4.
x2 x  2
Test Both Sides!
It is like running up a hill and then finding the path is
magically "not there"...
... but if we only check one side, who knows what
happens?
So, we need to test it from both directions to be sure
where it "should be"!
Limits:
 Limit of a function is a fundamental concept in calculus concerning the behavior of
that function near a particular input.

 It is fundamental to finding the tangent to a curve or the velocity of an object.

 We use limits to describe the way a function varies. Some functions vary continuously; small
changes in x produce only small changes in . Other functions can have values that jump or vary
erratically.

 The notion of limit gives a precise way to distinguish between these behaviors.

 The geometric application of using limits to define the tangent to a curve leads at once to the
important concept of the derivative of a function which quantifies the way a function’s values
change.
Limit of a Function:
Let be a function and let and be real numbers. is the limit of as approaches , written:

if assumes values closer and closer (but not equal ) to on both sides of , i.e., approaches the
number from the left-hand side, where (Left-hand limit) and the right-hand side where (Right-hand
limit) the corresponding values of get closer and closer (and are perhaps equal) to i.e.,

(Left-hand limit)
and

(Right-hand limit)
Then

(Limit of a function at )
Finding the Limit of a Polynomial Function
Example: Determine:

Solution: The behavior of

near can be determined from a table of values. Note that:

As approaches 1
x .9 .99 .999 1.001 1.01 1.1
f(x) 2.11 2.0101 2.001 1.999 1.9901 1.91

approaches 2
Finding the Limit of a Polynomial Function
Alternatively: from a graph of .

We see that:
Example:
Determine:

where:
Solution:
As approaches 3
x 2.9 2.99 2.999 3.001 3.01 3.1

f(x) 6.8 6.98 6.998 7.004 7.04 7.4

approaches 7
Note that:

Therefore,
Limits that do not exist
If there is no single value that is approached by as approaches , we say that
does not have a limit as approaches , or does not exist. In other words, if:

then, does not exist.

Determining whether a limit exists
Example: Determine:

where:

Solution: Construct a table

x 1.9 1.99 1.999 2.001 2.01 2.1

f(x) 2.6 2.96 2.996 1.003 1.03 1.3
Solution:
approaches 3 as gets closer to 2 from the left, i.e.,

but

approaches 1 as gets closer to 2 from the right, i.e.,

Since

Therefore, does not exist.

Example:
Find where

Solution: Construct a table and graph

x -.1 -.01 -.001

f(x) 100 10,000 1,000,000

x .001 .01 .1

f(x) 1,000,000 10,000 100

Note that as approaches 0, the corresponding
values of grow arbitrarily large. Therefore,

does not exist.

Conditions under which fails to exist:

 approaches a number as approaches from the left and approaches a different

number as approaches from the right i.e.,

 becomes infinitely large in absolute value as approaches from either side.

 oscillates infinitely many times between two fixed values as approaches .

Example: A Function May Fail to Have a Limit at a Point in Its Domain
Discuss the behavior of the following functions as
Solution: A Function May Fail to Have a Limit at a Point in Its Domain
(a) Left-hand limit is not equal to right-hand limit:
The unit step function has no limit because its values jump at For negative values of arbitrarily
close to zero, For positive values of arbitrarily close to zero, There is no single value approached
by as .
Solution: A Function May Fail to Have a Limit at a Point in Its Domain

(b) It grows too large to have a limit:

has no limit as because the values of grow
arbitrarily large in absolute value as and do not
stay close to any real number.
Solution: A Function May Fail to Have a Limit at a Point in Its Domain

(c) It oscillates too much to have a limit:

has no limit as because the function’s values
oscillate between and in every open interval
containing 0. The values do not stay close to any
one number as
One-Sided Limits
Limits of the form

are called two-sided limits since the values of get close to from both the right
and left sides of .

Limits which consider values of on only one side of are called one-sided limits.
Right-Hand Limit
The right-hand limit,

is read “the limit of as approaches from the right is .”

As gets closer and closer to from the right the values of get closer and closer to
.
Left-Hand Limit
The left-hand limit,

is read “the limit of as approaches from

the left is .”

As gets closer and closer to a from the left the values of get closer and
closer to .
One-sided limits are related to limits in the following way.
Example:
Find and where:

Moreover, determine whether exists or not?

Solution:
In order to evaluate , we make use of the formula:
In the limit , where , use Thus,
Example:
For the given graph, determine the following:

Solution:
2. lim 𝑓 (𝑥)=5,
−
𝑥→6
Practice: Determine:
Infinity as a Limit
A function may increase without bound as gets closer
and closer to from the right.
Infinity as a Limit
The right-hand limit does not exist, but the behavior is described by writing

If the values of decrease without bound, write

The notation is similar for left-handed limits.

Infinity as a Limit
Example: Find and where:

Solution:

and
Rules for Limits

1. Constant rule If is a constant real number,

2. Limit of identity function

Rules for Limits
For the following rules, we assume that and both exist.
3. Sum and difference rules
Rules for Limits
Rules for Limits (Continued)
4. Product Rule

5. Quotient Rule

provided
Rules for Limits
6. Polynomial rule If defines a polynomial function, then

7. Rational function rule If defines a rational function:

where and are polynomials with then

8. Power rule For any real number ,

provided this limit exists.

Rules for Limits
9. Exponent rule For any real number

10. Logarithm rule For any real number with ,

provided that
Rules for Limits
11. The Sandwich Theorem (Squeeze Theorem or Pinching Theorem)

12. Zero Limit Theorem

Examples
Example: Find
Solution:
Example: Find
Solution:
Note:
For any polynomial function in the form we have:
Example: Find

Solution:
Example: Find

Solution: Since

Therefore,
Example: Suppose that the inequalities:

hold for values of close to zero. What does this tell you about

Solution:

Thus, by Sandwich Theorem we have:

Example: Evaluate

Solution:
 Practice Questions
Evaluate the following:
Some Useful Limits
 Some Useful Limits
1.

2. .

3. .

4.
Example: Evaluate
Solution: Let so that as
Now, or or Thus,
So that

∵ ln 𝑒=1
 Example: Using the Sandwich theorem evaluate

Solution:
If we graph , it appears that
We might try to prove this using the sandwich theorem. Note that:

Unfortunately, neither of these new limits are defined, since the left
and right hand limits do not match.

We will have to be more creative.

Consider a unit circle:
𝑷 (𝑥 , 𝑦 )𝑻( 1 , tan 𝜃 )

1
sin 𝜃

∵Area sector 𝐴𝑂𝑃

𝜃
𝑶 cos 𝜃𝐵 𝐴(1,0)
1 𝜃 1
⋅ 1 ⋅ sin 𝜃 ≤ ≤ ⋅ 1⋅ tan 𝜃
2 2 2
sin 𝜃 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ tan 𝜃 multiply by two

sin 𝜃
sin 𝜃 ≤ 𝜃 ≤
cos 𝜃
𝜃 1
1≤ ≤ divide by
sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
sin 𝜃
1≥ ≥ cos 𝜃 Take the reciprocals, which reverses the
𝜃 inequalities.
sin 𝜃
cos 𝜃 ≤ ≤1 Switch ends.
𝜃
 sin 𝜃
cos𝜃≤ ≤1
Thus, by the sandwich theorem:
𝜃
Asymptotes
Recall…
• The notation tells us how the limit fails to exist by denoting the
unbounded behavior of as approaches .

• Infinity is not a number!

Example:
Let us consider:

Observe that:

Thus,
vertical
asymptote
at x=0.
Asymptotes
• An asymptote of a curve is a line or curve to which the curve converges. In
other words, the curve and its asymptote get infinitely close, but they never
meet at infinity.
• In most cases, the asymptote(s) of a curve can be found by taking the limit of a
value where the function is not defined.
• Asymptotes are generally straight lines, unless mentioned otherwise.
• Asymptotes can be broadly classified into three categories: horizontal, vertical
and oblique.
Vertical Asymptotes
• If approaches infinity (or negative infinity) as approaches from the left
or the right, then the line is a vertical asymptote of the graph of .

• A function may have any number of vertical asymptotes.

The Existence of a Vertical Asymptote

If is continuous around and around , then is a vertical asymptote of if and .

Big Idea: is a vertical asymptote if ONLY

makes the denominator zero.
Example
Determine all vertical asymptotes of

When is the denominator zero:

Do the ’s make the numerator 0?

Yes…

. No!
Example
Thus, is a vertical asymptote.

EXTRA: What about x = -1?

𝑥 +1 𝑥 +1 1
𝑓 ( 𝑥 )= = = .
2
𝑥 − 𝑥 −2 ( 𝑥 + 1 ) ( 𝑥 − 2 ) 𝑥 − 2

Therefore, is a removable discontinuity

Digging deeper…
Infinity is a very special idea. We know we can't reach it, but we can still
try to work out the value of functions that have infinity in them.
But We Can Approach It!

x 1/x
1 1.00000
2 0.50000
4 0.25000
10 0.10000
100 0.01000
1,000 0.00100
10,000 0.00010
Limits at infinity of

1
lim =0
𝑥 → −∞ 𝑥 Horizontal asymptote at
 An Introduction To Limits
 One-Sided Limits
 Laws for Calculating Limits
 Limits Involving Infinity
 Infinity as a Limit
 Limit at infinity
Asymptotes
Recall…
• The notation tells us how the limit fails to exist by denoting the
unbounded behavior of as approaches .

• Infinity is not a number!

Example:
Let us consider:

Observe that:

Thus,
vertical
asymptote
at x=0.
Asymptotes
• An asymptote of a curve is a line or curve to which the curve converges. In
other words, the curve and its asymptote get infinitely close, but they never
meet at infinity.
• In most cases, the asymptote(s) of a curve can be found by taking the limit of a
value where the function is not defined.
• Asymptotes are generally straight lines, unless mentioned otherwise.
• Asymptotes can be broadly classified into three categories: horizontal, vertical
and oblique.
Vertical Asymptotes
• If approaches infinity (or negative infinity) as approaches from the left
or the right, then the line is a vertical asymptote of the graph of .

• A function may have any number of vertical asymptotes.

The Existence of a Vertical Asymptote

If is continuous around and around , then is a vertical asymptote of if and .

Big Idea: is a vertical asymptote if ONLY

makes the denominator zero.
Example
Determine all vertical asymptotes of

When is the denominator zero:

Do the ’s make the numerator 0?

Yes…

. No!
Example
Thus, is a vertical asymptote.

EXTRA: What about x = -1?

𝑥 +1 𝑥 +1 1
𝑓 ( 𝑥 )= = = .
2
𝑥 − 𝑥 −2 ( 𝑥 + 1 ) ( 𝑥 − 2 ) 𝑥 − 2

Therefore, is a removable discontinuity

Digging deeper…
Infinity is a very special idea. We know we can't reach it, but we can still
try to work out the value of functions that have infinity in them.
But We Can Approach It!

x 1/x
1 1.00000
2 0.50000
4 0.25000
10 0.10000
100 0.01000
1,000 0.00100
10,000 0.00010
Limits at infinity of

1
lim =0
𝑥 → −∞ 𝑥 Horizontal asymptote at