Bread

Fermentation
Introduction
 History
 Bread being one of the earliest
“processed” food

 Bread is a fermented product

 Manufacturing “industry” from 3,000

B.C.E. in Egypt
Main Ingredients
 Wheat flour
 Liquid (water, milk)
 Salt
 Yeast (Sacharomyces cereviceae)

 Sugar
 Fat
 Eggs
Ingredients
 Key ingredients
 Wheat flour 60-70%, protein and carbohydrate
 Water 30-40%, solvent to hydrate flour and other
indredients
 Salt 1-2%, toughens the gluten, controls fermentation,
gives flavor
 Yeast 1-2%, leavening and flavor formation

 Optional ingredients
 Sugars 2-3%, fermentable, flavor, color
 Enzymes
 - and -amylases, supplement the low amount from
original flour
 Malt powder
 Proteolytic enzymes-softer dough, reducing mixing time
Ingredients
 Optional ingredients
 Fat-shortening
 Yeast nutrients
 Vitamins-flour enrichment with 4 B vitamins
 Dough improvers
 reducing agents, as cysteine, speed up mixing, weaken
dough
 Oxidating agents, as ascorbic acid, improve dough strengh
 Biological preservatives
 Mold inhibitor: potassium acetate, sodium diacetate,
sodium propionate, calcium propionate
 Emulsifiers (dough conditioners): mono- di-glycerides
 Gluten
 Added in certain cases to improve dough
 Crop years with low prot. cont., whole wheat and specialty
bread
The Function of Ingredients

Flour - provides structure

 Wheat flour - ground from
the entire wheat kernel

 White flour - milled from

wheat kernel after the bran
and germ have been
removed.
Wheat Flour
 Most common starting material
 Wheat (Flour)
 Other cereal grains such as rye, barley,

oats, corn, etc.

 Flour composition critical for the
fermentation and physical structure
of the dough and finished bread
Wheat Flour

 Consists mainly protein and starch

 Type of wheat (based on protein content)

 Hard wheat (12- 15%)
 Medium hard wheat (8-11%), often used

in bread making
 Soft wheat ( <9%) for cakes, cookies,

pastries
Wheat Flour
 Protein
 Gliadin and glutenin the most important
ones, ~85%
 When hydrated and mixed, form gluten,

key component of bread

 Remaining globulins and albumins, -

and -amylases
Wheat Flour
 Gluten
Wheat Flour
Gluten
Wheat Flour
 Carbohydrate
 75% of the total weight
 Largely compose of starch

 Native starch granule insoluble

 Amylose and amylopectin within sphericcal
granules in rigid, semi-crystalline network

 Some other carbohydrates

 A small amount of simple sugar, cellulose,

fiber (~1%)
The Function of Ingredients
Liquid
 Binds ingredients together and activates
gluten formation
 Usually milk although water can be used
for a crustier bread.
 Must be correct temp (37 – 45°C).
Too hot = kills yeast;
too cold = slows yeast growth or
won’t activate yeast.
The Function of Ingredients
Sugar
 Feeds the yeast and speeds rising
 Adds flavor and sweetness
 Contributes to browning
The Function of Ingredients
Salt
 Adds flavor
 Controls rate of yeast growth
The Function of Ingredients
Butter and other fats
 Adds tenderness and flavor
 Too much will interfere with gluten
formation.
The Function of Ingredients
Yeast
 Leavening agent
 Contributes flavor and aroma
 Killed at 140o when bread reaches this
temperature in the oven it will stop
rising.
Yeast Cultures
 S. cerevisiae, or bakers’ yeast
 Properties and characteristics for bread
making
 Gassing power
 Flavor development

 Stable to drying

 Stable during storage

 Easy to dispense

 Ethanol

 cryotolerant
Yeast Cultures
 Industrial production
 Scale up
 Growth medium
 Molasses or another inexpensive source of sugar and
various ammonium salts
 Other yeast nutrients
 Ammonium phosphate
 Magnesium sulfate
 Calcium sulfate, trace minerals (zinc, iron)
 Cell mass production required conditions
 O2 level
 Temp (30C)
 pH (4.0-5.0)
 continuous
 Types of Yeast

 Fresh Yeast-also called

compressed yeast.
Usually purchased in 1 lb.
Cakes.
 Active Dry Yeast-dry,
granular form of yeast.
Must be rehydrated in
warm water before use.
 Instant Yeast-also a dry
granular form of yeast,
does not have to be
dissolved in water before
use. Also called rapid rise
or quick rise yeast.
The Function of Ingredients
Eggs
 Emulsifier: keeps the liquid and the fat
mixed together.
 Adds nutrients and color
 Contributes to tenderness and
elasticity.
Steps in Yeast Bread Production

1. Mise en place (scale

and prepare
ingredients)
2. Mixing
3. Fermentation
4. Punching
5. Scaling
6. Rounding
Steps in Yeast Bread Production
7. Benching-allow the dough to rest
before shaping.
8. Makeup and panning
9. Proofing
10. Baking
11. Cooling
12. Storing
Food Science Principles

 Preparing yeast breads requires the

development of gluten and the formation of
carbon dioxide.
 The gluten develops during mixing and
kneading.
 The gluten will form the framework of the
bread and hold the carbon dioxide
produced by the yeast during fermentation.
 The yeast will produce carbon dioxide
which will give volume to the bread.
Kneading
 Although some of the gluten develops
during mixing, kneading develops most
of the gluten.
 To knead means to press the dough
with the heel of the hands, fold it, and
turn it.
Fermentation
 After kneading a yeast dough, you must
allow it to rest in a warm place. During
the rest time, the yeast acts upon the
sugars in the bread dough to form alcohol
and carbon dioxide. This is called
fermentation.

 The alcohol evaporates during baking, the

carbon dioxide causes the bread to rise.
 Glucose

Glucose 6-phosphate

Fructose 6-phosphate

Fructose 1, 6 phosphate
PGAL
DGAP Glyceraldehyde
3-phosphate
Dihydroxyacetone

PEP
Phosphenopyruvate

Pyruvate
CO2 Oxaloacetate
Lactic acid Acetyl CoA
TCA Cycle
+2 ATP
CO2 Respiration Chain

Ethanol
+2 ATP
CO2
+36 ATP
 The dough should double in volume.

 To test to see if the dough has doubled,

press two fingers into the dough, if an
indentation remains, the dough has risen
enough.
 Fermentation time varies depending on
the kind and amount of yeast, the
temperature of the room, and the kind of
flour.
 The room temperature for fermentation
should be 27 - 30 °C
Baking Enzymes

 Enzymes play an essential part in modern

baking technology.

 Many chemically synthesized substances

like bromate and emulsifiers are replaced
by enzymes.
 Function of Enzymes in Baked Goods

Property Target improvement Enzymes used

Processability Shorter mixing & Proteases,
proofing time, better hemicellulases,
dough stability oxidases, lipases
Volume Larger volume, esp. for α-amylase,
high fibre products hemicellulases,
cellulases, lipases,
protease
Stability Antistalling effect, α-amylase,
extended shelf life, hemicellulase
improved freshness
 Property Target Enzymes used
improvement
Texture Softer crumb, α-amylase
fine & regular Proteases,
pore structure, hemicellulases
better crispness,
less
hygroscopicity
Colour Browning effect, α-amylase,
improved crust glucoamylases
colour, (hemicellulases),
bleaching effect lipoxygenases
Flavour Production of α-amylase,
fermentation protease,
substrates & lipoxygenases,
aroma lipases, glucose
precursors oxidase
 Property Target Enzymes used
improvement
Nutritional Increased Hemicellulases,
properties amount of total & cellulases
soluble dietary
fibre, reduced fat
baking
Replacement of Replace of α-amylase,
chemicals bromate, sodium glucose oxidase,
metabisulphate, hemicellulases,
vital gluten lipoxygenases,
cellulases,
lipases,
proteases
 Main Enzymes Types for Baking
Enzyme Major substrate in bread flour
Amylolytic enzymes Starch
α-amylase Amylose & amylopectin
β-amylase Amylose & amylopectin
Glucoamylase Amylose & amylopectin
Pullulanase Amylopectin
Cellulase & hemicellulase Cell-wall components: cellulose, β-
glucan, pentosans
Cellulase Cellulose & β-glucan
Laminarinase β-glucan
Licheninase β-glucan
Xylanase Arabinoxylan
α-arabinosidase Arabinoxylan
 Enzyme Major substrate in bread
flour
Proteolytic enzymes Starch
Proteases Proteins
Peptidases Peptides
Action of Enzymes on Starch
 Source of enzymes:
 Wheat & barley malt
 Fungal & bacterial α-amylase

Damaged starch granules are attacked by

(a) α-amylase – dextrins & Provide fermentable
(b) β-amylase - maltose sugars – yeast – CO2
– higher bread loaf
Action of Enzymes on Starch
 Starch hydrolysis by α-amylase also
result in

 Weakening of starch gel in the baked

bread – improved crumb softness
 Stabilization of gas cells – important in
frozen dough products
 Anti-staling effect of α-amylase

 Interference of dextrins in
amylopectin recrystallization
 Dextrin promote the formation of

amylopectin-lipid complex
Action of Enzymes on Pentosans
 Pentosan (mainly arabinoxylans)
contribute 2-3% of wheat flour, up to
5% in wholemeal flour and 8% in rye
flour
 Insoluble pentosans hinder the
development of gluten
 Pentosans bind ~ x10 their own weight
of water – 1/3 of water binding capacity
of flour
Action of Enzymes on Pentosans
 Degradation of pentosan (e.g. b
xylanases) causes water redistribution
from pentosans to starch and gluten
phase – dough become softer & easier
to process
 Addition of xylanase alleviate problems
caused by addition of dietary fibre
 So…
 Enzyme usage in food today more
focused on value creation at ingredient
level
 Breath of possibilities expanding due to
tools of biotech
 Advancement of enzyme development has
enhanced sustainability of many
processes
 Microbial enzymes offer many unique
possibilities based on the substrate
 Have become very cost effective as
processing aids

 And lastly, enzymes in food are not what

the public perceives the industry as:
 Improve Freshness and Shelf-Life
• Some amylases can influence the structure
of the dough, permitting prolonged
freshness or an increased shelf-life.
• They modify starch and other constituents in
a way that retro gradation is reduced.
Baking Enzymes
Amylase

Produce sugars for yeast during dough making

amylase yeast
Starch  sugars  CO2  dough rise
 Replacement of Emulsifiers
 As most common emulsifiers are chemical
substances, extensive efforts have been made to
replace them with natural, biological materials.

 This is possible with the help of baking enzymes such

as transglutaminase (TG) or very specific lipases.
This enzyme cross-links the gluten proteins and
improves the consistency and stability of the dough.
 How TG works?
 TG catalyzes the cross-link of side chains of two amino
acids (glutamine and lysine) in liquefied proteins
yielding ε- (γ-glutamyl)-lysine bond.

 This bond is stable against heat treatment or physical

stress.
 Transglutaminase for Bakery (Bread, Cake)

Functional Benefits
1.Improve the pore structure in the crust
2.Improving bread structure; making the bread more
soft and more tender in texture
3. Shortening the fermentation time
4.Improving the elasticity of a dough and producing
a fine crumb texture
5.Increase loaf volume
6.Improve dough stability
 Other baking enzymes

 Xylanases
 Affect water absorption and improve strength of gluten
(protein network  elasticity)
 Improve quality (good texture)
 Better dough handling
 Lipases
 Provide emulsifying effect  create fine texture and
crumb
 Proteases
 Reduce gluten for making biscuits and cookies
Advantages of Using Enzymes in Baking

 Desirable texture
 Longer shelf-life, anti-staling
 Better dough handling
THANK YOU