Module 5: Scientific Writing/Writing Dissertation

1. Referencing Skills for Academic Report Writing

2. Bibliography writing

3. Reporting your findings

4. Presentation Skills
Referencing Skills for Academic
Report Writing
What is Reference?
• References are citations within the text of a document that
acknowledge the sources used to support or validate the arguments
and claims made. They typically combine ideas

References serve as a vital component of academic writing,

providing evidence and credibility to the work.

Advantages of Reference
1. Ensures academic integrity by giving proper credit to original authors.

2. Adds credibility to the arguments and claims made in the text.

3. Enables readers to verify and access the sources used.

4. Provides evidence and support for statements and research findings.

5. Helps to avoid plagiarism by accurately attributing information.

6. Allows for easy tracking and identification of the sources cited.

7. Demonstrates the depth of research conducted on a particular topic.

8. Facilitates further exploration of the cited sources for interested readers.

9. Enhances the overall quality and professionalism of the written work.

10. Enables scholars to build upon existing research and contribute to the academic discourse.
Limitations of Reference
1. Requires careful attention to citation rules and formatting styles.

2. Can be time-consuming to locate and cite accurate and relevant sources.

3. Difficulties may arise in finding suitable references for specific topics.

4. Mistakes in referencing can lead to accusations of plagiarism.

5. Some sources may be inaccessible or unavailable for citation.

6. Limited availability of certain sources, especially older or rare publications.

7. Necessitates staying updated with changes in citation guidelines.

8. Overreliance on references may overshadow original thought and analysis.

9. Different citation styles may have specific requirements and variations.

10. Can be challenging for non-native speakers to understand and apply referencing conventions.
Writing Bibliography
What is Bibliography?
A bibliography is a comprehensive list of all the sources consulted and

referred to during the research process. It is presented as a separate

page or section at the end of a document and provides complete

bibliographic information about each source, including author(s), title,

publication date, publisher, and more. Bibliographies offer readers an

overview of the research conducted on a particular subject and allow

for further exploration of the cited sources.

Advantages of Bibliography

1. Provides a comprehensive overview of the research conducted on a topic.

2. Allows interested readers to explore the sources used for further study.

3. Demonstrates the depth and breadth of knowledge in a specific field.

4. Facilitates access to the original sources for verification and reference.

5. Enhances the credibility and reliability of the research presented.

6. Assists researchers in identifying related and influential works.

7. Encourages scholars to acknowledge and engage with existing literature.

8. Enables readers to gain a broader understanding of the topic.

9. Serves as a valuable resource for future researchers and scholars.

10. Supports the academic community by fostering knowledge sharing and collaboration.
Disadvantages of Bibliography
1. Requires significant effort and time to compile a comprehensive list.

2. May include sources that are not directly relevant to the research topic.

3. Difficulties may arise in locating and accessing certain sources.

4. Limited availability of older or rare publications can impact completeness.

5. Different citation styles may have specific requirements and variations.

6. Mistakes in formatting or inaccuracies can undermine the credibility of the work.

7. Large bibliographies can be overwhelming for readers to navigate.

8. Some readers may not have access to all the sources cited.

9. Can be challenging for non-native speakers to understand and apply bibliographic conventions.

10. Adding a bibliography may increase the overall length of the document.
Similarities & Differences
between Reference and
Bibliography
Similarities between Reference and Bibliography
1. Both reference and bibliography provide information about the sources used in a document.

2. They contribute to maintaining academic integrity and avoiding plagiarism.

3. Both reference and bibliography include bibliographic details about the sources.

4. They allow readers to access and verify the cited sources.

5. Both reference and bibliography demonstrate the depth of research conducted.

6. They play a crucial role in giving credit to original authors and acknowledging their work.

7. Both reference and bibliography can be formatted in various citation styles.

8. They are essential components of scholarly and academic writing.

9. Both reference and bibliography enhance the overall credibility of the written work.

10. They facilitate further exploration and study of the cited sources.
 Differences between Reference
and Bibliography

While references are specific citations used within the

text to support arguments, bibliographies provide a
comprehensive list of all sources consulted. References
acknowledge and authenticate the sources used, while
bibliographies offer readers an opportunity to explore
and verify the research conducted.
eBook

1. Author(s). Note: Use the format Last Name, First Name Middle Name or Initial. If there are
multiple authors, use and before the last author's name.
2. Title of the Book, Note: Use italics for the title of a longer work like a book and use headline-
style
capitalization.
3. Editors Note: If there is one editor, use the format edited by Last Name, First Name. If there are
multiple editors, use and before the last author's name.

4. Publisher,
5. Publication date.
6. Database, Note: Use italics for names of databases.
7. URL or permalink.
Print Book
1.Author(s). Note: Use the format Last Name, First Name Middle Name or Initial. If there are multiple
authors, use and before the last author's name.
2.Title of the Book. Note: Use italics for the title of a longer work like a book and use headline-style
capitalization
3. Edition Note: If there are multiple editions, use the format 1st/2nd/3rd ed.,/ Rev. ed.,/ Abr. ed.,/ Ver.,
4. Publisher,
5. Publication date.
Example:

Cicovacki, Predrag. Dostoevsky and the Affirmation of Life. New Brunswick / London: Transaction,

2012.

Lee, Harper. To Kill a Mockingbird. 1st ed., J. B. Lippincott & Co., 1960.

The Bible. Authorized King James Version, Oxford UP, 1998.

Example:

Hughes, Langston. Letters from Langston: From the Harlem Renaissance to

the Red Scare and Beyond, edited by Evelyn Louise Crawford and Mary
Louise Patterson. University of California Press, 2016. EBSCOhost
Academic eBook Collection,
http://libproxy.csudh.edu/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/
login.aspx?direct=true& db=e000xna&AN=1105577&site=ehost-
live&scope=site&ebv=EB&.
Date of access:

When you cite an online source, the MLA Handbook recommends including a date of access on which you
accessed the material, since an online work may change or move at any time.

Bernstein, Mark. "10 Tips on Writing the Living Web." A List Apart: For People Who Make Websites, 16
Aug.2002, alistapart.com/article/writeliving. Accessed 4 May 2009.
Book Chapter

1. Author(s) of the Chapter. Note: Use the format Last Name, First Name Middle Name or Initial (if any). If there are

multiple authors, use and before the last author's name.

2. "Title of the Chapter." Note: Include the title of a shorter work like a chapter in quotation marks and use headline-
style capitalization.
3. Title of the Book, Note: Use italics for the title of a longer work like a book and use headline-style capitalization.
4. Editors Note: If there is one editor, use the format edited by First Name Middle Name or Initial (if any) Last Name.
If there are multiple editors, use and before the last author's name.
5. Publisher,
6. Publication date,
7. pp. xxx-xxx.
8. Database, Note: Use italics for names of databases.
9. URL or permalink.
Example:

Green, David. "Supporting the Academic Success of Hispanic Students." College Libraries and
Student Culture: What We Now Know, edited by Andrew D. Asher and Lynda M. Duke, ALA Editions,
2011. EBSCOhost Academic eBook Collection,
http://libproxy.csudh.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.as px?
direct=true&db=nlebk&AN=390319.

Washington, Linn. “Police Are Racist Against Minorities.” Police Brutality, edited by Michael
Ruth, Greenhaven, 2016., pp. 39-45.
Webpage:

1. Author. Note: If there is no individual author, begin the citation with "Title of the Page."

2. "Title of Page, Section, or Document."

3. Publisher,

4. URL.

Example:

"Citation Guide." CSUDH University Library, https://www.libguides.csudh.edu/citation.

Online/ Blog/Newspaper/ Magazine Article:
1. Author(s). Note: Use the format Last Name, First Name Middle Name or Initial. If there are
multiple authors, use and before the last author's name.
2. "Title of the Article." Note: Include the title of a shorter work in quotation marks and use headline-
style capitalization.
3. Title of the Newspaper or Publisher, Note: Use italics for the title of a longer work like a newspaper
or online publication and use headline-style capitalization.
4. Publication date, Note: Use the format Date Abbreviated Month Year.
5. URL.
Example:
Robinson, Angela. "History Shows Why It's Time for a Black Woman to Sit on the Supreme Court ." The
Washington Post, 1 Feb. 2022,
https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2022/02/01/history-shows-why-its-time-black-woman-sit-
supreme-court/.

Bagchi, Alaknanda. "Conflicting Nationalisms: The Voice of the Subaltern in Mahasweta Devi's Bashai
Tudu." Tulsa Studies in Women's Literature, vol. 15, no. 1, 1996, pp. 41-50.

Wise, DeWanda. “Why TV Shows Make Me Feel Less Alone.” NAMI, 31 May
2019, www.nami.org/Blogs/NAMI-Blog/May-2019/How-TV-Shows-Make-Me-Feel-Less-Alone.
Accessed 3 June 2019.
Journal Article:
1. Author(s). Note: Use the format Last Name, First Name Middle Name or Initial. If there are multiple
authors, use and before the last author's name.
2. "Title of the Article." Note: Include the title of a shorter work like an article in a journal in quotation
marks and use headline-style capitalization.
3. Title of the Journal, Note: Use italics for the title of a longer work like a journal and use headline-style
capitalization.
4. vol. #,
5. no. #, Note: If there is no additional number after the volume, only include the volume number.
6. Publication date,
7. pp. xxx-xxx.
If accessed online or in a library database...
Database, Note: Use italics for names of databases.
URL or permalink.
Example:

Adiche, Chimamanda Ngozi. “On Monday of Last Week.” The Thing around Your Neck, Alfred A. Knopf,
2009, pp. 74-94.

Gosine, Kevin, and Emmanuel Tabi. "Disrupting Neoliberalism and Bridging the Multiple Worlds of
Marginalized Youth via Hip-Hop Pedagogy: Contemplating Possibilities." Review of Education,
Pedagogy, and Cultural Studies, vol. 38, no. 5, 2016, pp. 445-467. Research Gate,
doi:10.1080/10714413.2016.1221712.
Group author

Sometimes a source may be written by a group or organisation. This is often true for collaborative or official

works from corporations, organisations, and government departments.

In this case, use the group in the author position, both in the in-text citation and in the list of works cited:

(Modern Language Association par. 2).

Example:

Modern Language Association. "Advice to Graduate Students: From Application to Career." Modern Language

Association, 2012, www.mla.org/About-Us/Governance/Committees/Committee- Listings/Professional-

Issues/Committee-on-Academic-Freedom-and-Professional-Rights-and-Responsibilities/Advice-to-Graduate-

Students-From-Application-to-Career.
No author
Any work (book, article, or website) that does not identify an author, corporate author,
or government author is cited according to the title of the work.
The source's title is used in place of the author. Write the source's title in full the first time you
cite the source.

The Saga of King Hrolf Kraki. Translated by Jesse L. Byock, Penguin, 1998.

If the title is in quotation marks in the list of works cited, it should also be in quotation marks in the
in-text citation. If the title is italicised, it should also be italicized in-text:

"Tobacco Firms Targeting Weight-Conscious Girls." New Zealand Herald, 22 Oct. 2008, p. A10.
Citation
First citation: (The Saga of King Hrolf Karki 22)

Subsequent citations: According to Saga (22)…

First citation: According to "Tobacco Firms Targeting Weight-Conscious Girls" (A10)…

Subsequent citations: …with respect to the change ("Tobacco Firms A10").

City of publication

You can give the city of publication if the publisher is not well-known and the city may help the reader

locate the source.

Two Cities

You can give both the city of publication e.g. New York/ London

Two or more cities of publication

If more than one city of publication is listed, use the first one mentioned.

No city of publication

If no city of publication is indicated in the source, simply omit this detail.

Publisher

The publisher's name does not include legal or superfluous terms such as “inc.”, “co.”, “ltd.”,
“press”, and “publishers”.

“University” is always shortened to “U”, and “University Press” is always shortened to “UP”:

E.g. Cambridge UP
Co -Publisher

If two independent publishers are given in a source and they seem equally responsible, cite both,
separated with a forward slash:

E.g. Oxford UP/Random House.

Common Academic Abbreviations
anon. anonymous
app. appendix
c. or ca. circa (approximately)
ch. chapter
dept. department
ed. edition
e.g. for example
et al. multiple names (translates to "and others")
Ibid. in the same place
i.e. that is
no. number
P Press (used to describe an academic press e.g. Oxford P)
p., pp. page, pages
par. paragraph
qtd. in quoted in
rev. revised
sec. section
trans. translation
U University (also French Université, German Universität, Italian Università,
Spanish Universidad).
UP University Press
vol. volume
 Report Writing Format
Following are the parts of a report format that is most common.
1.Executive summary – highlights of the main report
2.Table of Contents – index page
3.Introduction – origin, essentials of the main subject
4.Body – main report
5.Conclusion – inferences, measures taken, projections
6.Reference – sources of information
7.Appendix
Executive Summary
An executive summary in a technical report serves as a concise overview of the
main points and findings presented in the report. It is typically aimed at busy
executives, managers, or decision-makers who may not have the time to read
the entire document. Here's a general structure and guidelines for creating an
effective executive summary for a technical report:
Introduction:
• Briefly introduce the purpose and scope of the report.
• Highlight the problem or objective the report addresses.
•Background:
• Provide a brief context or background information related to the topic.
• Mention any relevant history, challenges, or trends.
•Objectives:
• Clearly state the goals and objectives of the report.
• Specify what the report aims to achieve or solve.
Methodology:
• Briefly describe the methods and approaches used in the report.
• Highlight any key tools, technologies, or data sources.
Key Findings:
• Summarize the main findings and results of the report.
• Use bullet points or numbered lists for clarity.
Recommendations:
• Provide concise and actionable recommendations based on the findings.
• Highlight potential solutions or strategies.
Implications:
• Discuss the potential impact of the findings on the organization or relevant
stakeholders.
• Address any risks or opportunities identified.
Conclusion:
• Conclude the executive summary by summarizing the overall significance of the report.
• Reinforce the key takeaways and the importance of the recommendations.
 Optional Elements in Executive Summary

Key Metrics or Data:

• If applicable, include key metrics or data points that support the findings.
• Use graphs or charts for visual impact.
Limitations:
• Briefly acknowledge any limitations or constraints in the study.
• Be transparent about the scope and potential areas for improvement.
Next Steps:
• Suggest any necessary follow-up actions or future steps based on the report's findings.
• Outline a roadmap for implementation, if relevant.
Call to Action:
• Encourage the reader to take specific actions based on the report's recommendations.
• Emphasize the importance of addressing the issues raised in the report.
Table of Contents
The report should begin with a table of contents. This explains the audience, author, and
basic purpose of the attached report. It should be short and to the point.
Title:
• Begin with a clear and prominent title at the top of the page, such as "Table of
Contents" or "Contents."
•Formatting:
• Use a consistent and legible font throughout the Table of Contents.
• Format the headings and subheadings consistently with the main body of the report.
•Hierarchy:
• Reflect the hierarchical structure of the report with appropriate indentation and
formatting.
• Distinguish between main sections and subsections using different formatting styles
(e.g., bold for main headings, italics for subheadings).
•Page Numbers:
• Include page numbers aligned to the right of the respective headings.
• Ensure that page numbers are accurate and correspond to the actual pages in the
document.
 Section Titles:
• List the main sections of the report in sequential order.
• Include titles such as Introduction, Methodology, Data Presentation,
Analysis, Recommendations, Conclusion, etc.
Subsections:
• If applicable, include subsections under each main section.
• Indicate the hierarchical relationship through indentation or other
formatting cues.
Appendices and Additional Materials:
• Include a separate entry for appendices, if any, with corresponding page
numbers.
• If there are additional materials like figures, tables, or charts, consider
including a separate entry for each.
Preface or Acknowledgments (if applicable):
• Include entries for any prefatory sections like preface or acknowledgments.
• List of Figures and Tables (if separate):
• If your report has a separate list of figures and tables, include these
sections in the Table of Contents.
• Appendix Titles:
• If there are multiple appendices, list them with clear titles in the Table
of Contents.
• Formatting and Consistency:
• Maintain consistent formatting throughout the Table of Contents.
• Use formatting features like bold, italics, or different font sizes to
differentiate between levels of headings.
• Update Page Numbers:
• If any changes are made to the document, such as adding or removing
pages, ensure that the Table of Contents is updated accordingly.
Introduction
This section is the beginning of your report. It highlights the major topics that are
covered and provides background information on why the data in the report was
collected. It also contains a top view of what’s covered in the report.
Opening Statement:
• Begin with a clear and engaging opening statement that captures the reader's
attention.
• Consider addressing the significance or relevance of the topic.
Background Information:
• Provide background information on the subject matter.
• Include any relevant historical context or industry background.
Objectives and Purpose:
• Clearly state the objectives of the report.
• Explain why the report was undertaken and its intended purpose.
• Scope:
• Define the scope of the report by specifying the boundaries and limitations.
• Identify what is included and what is excluded from the report.
• Problem Statement or Research Question:
• If applicable, articulate the problem statement or the central research
question.
• Highlight the challenges or issues that the report aims to address.
• Significance of the Study:
• Discuss the importance of the report's findings and how they contribute to
the broader field or industry.
• Explain the potential impact on stakeholders or relevant processes.
• Overview of Methodology:
• Provide a brief overview of the methods, tools, or approaches used in
conducting the research or analysis.
• Offer insight into the data collection and analysis process.
• Organization of the Report:
• Outline the structure of the report by briefly describing the main sections or
chapters.
• Help readers navigate the document by providing a roadmap.
• Target Audience:
• Specify the intended audience for the report.
• Tailor the level of technical detail to match the knowledge and expertise of
the readers.
• Motivation for the Report:
• Explain why the topic is relevant and why the report is necessary.
• Discuss any driving factors or events that prompted the need for the report.
• Transition to the Main Body:
• End the introduction with a smooth transition to the main body of the report.
• Preview the key themes or topics that will be explored in detail.
Body/ Discussion
 The body of the report describes the problem, the data that was collected, sometimes in
the form of table or charts, and discusses with reasons. The body is usually broken into
subsections, with subheadings that highlight the further breakdown of a point. Report
writing format is very specific that way about clear and crisp headings and subheadings.
 This just structures out readers clarity in understanding and further enhances the logical
flow that can get hard to follow. Since a report has no personal bias or opinions, you can
imagine that reading through a report can be a bit boring and people may find it hard to
follow through. In such a case, it’s always best to create pointers and lay out the points
in short and simple methods.
Note: Tables and figures must all be labeled
• Review of Literature (if applicable):
• Provide a comprehensive review of relevant literature, studies, or existing research in
the field.
• Summarize key theories, methodologies, and findings from previous work.
• Methodology:
• Detail the methods and procedures used in the research or analysis.
• Specify data collection techniques, tools, and any relevant experimental setup.
• Include information on sample size, data sources, and any limitations in the
methodology.
• Data Presentation:
• Present raw data, observations, or experimental results.
• Utilize tables, graphs, charts, or other visual aids for clarity.
• Include units of measurement and labels for data points.
• Analysis and Interpretation:
• Analyze the data and interpret the results.
• Discuss trends, patterns, and relationships within the data.
• Relate findings back to the objectives or research questions.
• Discussion of Findings:
• Provide an in-depth discussion of the significance of the findings.
• Compare and contrast results with existing literature or industry
standards.
• Address any unexpected outcomes or variations.
• Theoretical Framework (if applicable):
• Discuss any theoretical frameworks or models relevant to the study.
• Explain how the theoretical concepts relate to the research and findings.
• Recommendations:
• Based on the analysis, offer clear and actionable recommendations.
• Provide rationale and justifications for each recommendation.
• Discuss the potential impact of implementing the recommendations.
• Implementation Plan (if applicable):
• Outline a plan for implementing the recommendations.
• Challenges and Limitations:
• Discuss any challenges encountered during the research or analysis.
• Address the limitations of the study and potential sources of bias.
• Conclusion:
• Summarize the key findings and their implications.
• Reinforce the overall significance of the research or analysis.
• Highlight contributions to the field or industry.
• Future Work:
• Suggest potential areas for future research or improvements.
• Discuss unanswered questions or opportunities for further investigation.
• Summary of Key Points:
• Provide a concise summary of the main points discussed in the main body.
• Reiterate the importance of the research and its potential impact.
Conclusion
• At the end of our main body lies the tying of ends together in the much-awaited
conclusion. The conclusion explains how the data described in the body of the document
may be interpreted or what conclusions may be drawn. The conclusion often suggests
how to use the data to improve some aspect of the business or recommends additional
research.
• This solution then may be implemented to solve a given problem the report was made
for in the first place. Big consultancies or service providers prepare reports in the form
of Microsoft Powerpoint or the Keynote in Mac to present to the stakeholders. At the
end of which lies the conclusive suggestion section.
• Summary of Key Findings:
• Provide a concise summary of the main findings and results presented in
the report.
• Highlight the key points that support the objectives or research questions.
• Achievements and Contributions:
• Discuss the achievements of the study and its contributions to the field or
industry.
• Emphasize how the research fills gaps in existing knowledge or addresses
specific challenges.
• Reiteration of Recommendations:
• Reinforce the recommendations made in the main body of the report.
• Briefly recap the suggested actions or strategies based on the findings.
• Implications of Findings:
• Discuss the broader implications of the findings on the organization,
industry, or relevant stakeholders.
• Consider the short-term and long-term effects of implementing the
recommendations.
• Reflection on Methodology:
• Reflect on the effectiveness of the chosen methodology and data
collection approaches.
• Address any limitations encountered and how they may have influenced
the study.
• Significance of the Study:
• Reiterate the significance of the study in the context of the larger field.
• Explain why the research is important and how it adds value to existing
knowledge.
• Connection to Objectives:
• Reinforce how the study successfully achieved its stated objectives.
• Demonstrate the alignment between the research questions and the conclusions drawn.
• Final Thoughts:
• Provide any final thoughts or reflections on the overall process and outcomes of the research.
• Share insights gained during the course of the study.
• Call to Action:
• Encourage readers to take action based on the findings and recommendations.
• Discuss the potential benefits of implementing the suggested changes or strategies.
• Acknowledgments (if applicable):
• Express gratitude or acknowledgment for any support, resources, or collaboration received during the
research.
• Future Considerations:
• Discuss potential areas for future research or expansion on the current study.
• Identify questions that remain unanswered or require further investigation.
• Closing Statement:
• End the conclusion with a strong and memorable closing statement.
• Summarize the overall impact and importance of the research.
Reference
If you used other sources of information to help write your report, such as a
government database, you would include that in the references. The
references section lists the resources used to research or collect the data for
the report. References provide proof for your points. Also, this provides
solid reasoning for the readers so that they can review the original data
sources themselves. Also, credit must be given where credit is due.
Appendix
Lastly, comes the appendix. Although this one is not necessary, more like an optional
element. This may include additional technical information that is not necessary to the
explanation provided in the body and conclusion but further supports the findings,
such as tables or charts or pictures, or additional research not cited in the body but
relevant to the discussion. Note: Tables and figures must all be labelled.
Presentation
Skills
Thank you