INHERITANCE

(Syllabus points 3.13 – 3.33)

 REPRODUCTION (review)
3.1 understand the differences between sexual and asexual reproduction

There are two types of reproduction;

• Sexual: reproduction in which two gametes (sex

cells) fuse to create a new offspring that is
genetically different to the parents. Two parents
are involved.

• Asexual: reproduction without fusion of

gametes. It involves one parent only and
produces offspring that are genetically identical
to the parent (clones).
 Fertilization (review)
3.2 understand that fertilisation involves the fusion of a male and female gamete to produce a zygote that
undergoes cell division and develops into an embryo

Definitions A male and a female gamete fuse

• Fertilization: to form a zygote
a cell that is the result of
fertilization. It will divide by mitosis
• Zygote: to form an embryo
An organism in its early stages of
development, especially before it
has reached a distinctively
• Embryo:
recognizable form.
 Fertilization, Zygote, Embryo(Review)
3.2 understand that fertilisation involves the fusion of a male and female gamete to produce a zygote that undergoes cell division and develops
into an embryo
 Genes are on Chromosomes
3.13 understand that the nucleus of a cell contains chromosomes on which genes are located

The nucleus of every cell

contains DNA.

The DNA is organized in

genes and the genes are
located on
Chromosomes.

The best way to think

about it is like a library…. video press
 3.13 understand that the nucleus of a cell contains chromosomes on which genes are located

LIBRARY Nucleus
Chromosome
Books (23 pairs)
Gene
Chapters (makes one protein)

Words Group of 3 letters

DNA letters
Letters (A, C, T, G)
3.13 understand that the nucleus of a cell contains chromosomes on which genes are located
 Genes Make a SPECIFIC Protein
3.14 understand that a gene is a section of a molecule of DNA and that a gene codes for a specific protein

1) Genes are written in DNA code.

2) The code can be translated into amino acids.
3) Amino Acids are linked together to make
proteins.
ONE Gene codes for ONE specific protein
 Genes Make a SPECIFIC Protein
3.14 understand that a gene is a section of a molecule of DNA and that a gene codes for a specific protein

A three-base sequence codes for each amino acid.

base sequence amino acid

 Genes Make a SPECIFIC Protein
3.14 understand that a gene is a section of a molecule of DNA and that a gene codes for a specific protein

Genes don’t actually make proteins – they just contain the instructions on how to make
them.

DNA stays in the nucleus but proteins are built in the cell’s cytoplasm.
 3.14 understand that a gene is a section of a molecule of DNA and that a gene codes for a specific protein

So Your Genes code for Your Proteins

 WHAT IS DNA?
3.15 describe a DNA molecule as two strands coiled to form a double helix, the strands being linked by a series of paired bases: adenine (A) with
thymine (T), and cytosine (C) with guanine (G)

DNA is a very long molecule.

It is shaped like a twisted
ladder.

Two long strands make the

backbones and are connected
by rungs or links.
 BASE PAIRS
3.15 describe a DNA molecule as two strands coiled to form a double helix, the strands being linked by a series of paired bases: adenine (A) with
thymine (T), and cytosine (C) with guanine (G)

The Strands are

connected by BASE
PAIRS
• Adenine (A)
• Thymine (T)
• Cytosine (C)
• Guanine (G)

The bases only match:

A-T
C-G
 Genes come in Variations
3.16 understand that genes exist in alternative forms called alleles which give rise to differences in inherited characteristics

Sometimes more than one version of a gene occurs.

The different versions are called alleles
(i.e. we all have the gene for iris pigment (protein),
but there are different colours of iris pigment, same
gene but different alleles)
 Alleles give rise to Variation
3.16 understand that genes exist in alternative forms called alleles which give rise to differences in inherited characteristics

over
view
 Alleles give rise to Variation (2)
3.16 understand that genes exist in alternative forms called alleles which give rise to differences in inherited characteristics

Alleles give rise to a range of different inherited

characteristics in a population.
These can include in humans:
Eye Colour
Skin Colour
Hitch Hikers Thumb
Rolling of the tongue
Earlobe shape
Blood Type
Many many others………..
DEFINITIONS OF INHERITANCE TERMS
3.17 understand the meaning of the terms: dominant, recessive, homozygous, heterozygous, phenotype, genotype and co-dominance

Dominant:
A gene allele that ‘expresses’ over another allele in homozygous and
heterozyogus pairs. Shown in phenotype.

B b
Recessive:
A gene allele that only ‘expresses’ when it is matched with another
recessive allele and never when matched with a dominant allele.
Homozygous Recessive. Shown in phenotype

b b
DEFINITIONS OF INHERITANCE TERMS
3.17 understand the meaning of the terms: dominant, recessive, homozygous, heterozygous, phenotype, genotype and co-dominance

Homozygous: having identical alleles at corresponding

chromosome Loci (Gene Location).
Heterozygous: having dissimilar alleles at
corresponding chromosomal Loci.

b B B B b b
DEFINITIONS OF INHERITANCE TERMS
3.17 understand the meaning of the terms: dominant, recessive, homozygous, heterozygous, phenotype, genotype and co-dominance
DEFINITIONS OF INHERITANCE TERMS
3.17 understand the meaning of the terms: dominant, recessive, homozygous, heterozygous, phenotype, genotype and co-dominance
DEFINITIONS OF INHERITANCE TERMS
3.17 understand the meaning of the terms: dominant, recessive, homozygous, heterozygous, phenotype, genotype and co-dominance

Phenotype: the set of observable

characteristics
Geneotypeof an individual resulting
from the interaction of its genotype
with the environment
Genotype: The genetic makeup of a cell,
an organism, or an individual with Phenotype
reference to a specific characteristic.

Environemnt
DEFINITIONS OF INHERITANCE TERMS
3.17 understand the meaning of the terms: dominant, recessive, homozygous, heterozygous, phenotype, genotype and co-dominance
3.17 understand the meaning of the terms: dominant, recessive, homozygous, heterozygous, phenotype, genotype and co-dominance
 DEFINITIONS OF INHERITANCE TERMS
3.17 understand the meaning of the terms: dominant, recessive, homozygous, heterozygous, phenotype, genotype and co-dominance

Codominance: A single gene has more than one dominant allele and both genes are
expressed.
The meaning of the prefix "co-" is "together". Cooperate = work together. Coexist =
exist together. Cohabitat = habitat together.

When writing alleles remember:

All alleles are CAPITAL letters

*I remember codominance in the form of an example like so:

red x white ---> red & white spotted
CODOMINANCE
 Genetic Diagrams - Generations
3.18 describe patterns of monohybrid inheritance using a genetic diagram

Generations
There are the parents, then their offspring, and their offspring, etc. etc.

Each generation has a name.

The first plants or animals bred together are called the Parental generation, or P1 generation.
Their offspring are called the First Filial generation, or F1 generation.
Their offspring are called the Second Filial generation, or F2 generation.

And so on. And so on.

Genetic Diagrams – Punnett Squares
3.18 describe patterns of monohybrid inheritance using a genetic diagram

SOME SIMPLE EXAMPLES OF WHAT YOU CAN USE A

PUNNETT SQUARE FOR

SEED COLOUR FLOWER COLOUR GENDER

press
Genetic Diagrams – Punnett Squares
3.18 describe patterns of monohybrid inheritance using a genetic diagram

P1
press

P1

P1

Genotype of F2
 Genetic Diagrams – Punnett Squares
3.18 describe patterns of monohybrid inheritance using a genetic diagram

How to diagram patterns in monohybrid inheritance:

1) Phenotype of Parents P1
2) Genotype of Parents
3) Gametes Produced
4) Genotype of F1 (you may need a Punnett square)
5) Phenotype of F1
6) Gametes from F1 produced
7) Genotype of F2 (you may need a Punnett square)
8) Phenotype of F2
9) What are the ratios of F2 Phenotype and Genotypes
 Genetic Diagrams – Crossing
3.18 describe patterns of monohybrid inheritance using a genetic diagram

To cross two tall plants press

1. The allele for tallness is H and is dominant to that for smallness, h.

2. If the two plants are heterozygous, they will have a genotype, which contains the alleles Hh.

3. Gametes of individuals contain half of the chromosomes. So only one of the alleles will be
present in each gamete cell.
So there will be 3
tall plants for every
1 small plant. Or to
put it another way,
there is a 75%
chance that each F1
(offspring) plant will
be tall.
 TESTCROSS
3.18 describe patterns of monohybrid inheritance using a genetic diagram

Geneticists use the testcross to determine unknown Genotypes

A testcross can reveal an unknown genotype
1. Mate an individual of unknown genotype and a
homozygous-recessive individual
2. In a test cross you breed an organism showing the
dominant features with one showing the recessive
feature
3. Each of the two possible genotypes (homozygous
or heterozygous) gives a different phenotypic ratio
in the F1 generation
 TESTCROSS
3.18 describe patterns of monohybrid inheritance using a genetic diagram
 Pedigree Charts
3.19 understand how to interpret family pedigrees

A pedigree is a chart of the genetic history of family over several generations.

Constructing a Pedigree Connecting Pedigree

Symbols
• Female • Married
Couple
• Male
• Siblings
• Not Affected
• Affected • Fraternal
twins
• Deceased
• Identical
twins
 Example (Dominant or Recessive)
3.19 understand how to interpret family pedigrees

Is the Affected allele Dominant or Recessive?

Affected Unaffected

aa AA aa aa
RECESSIVE

Aa Aa Aa aa aa aa

aa Aa Aa
 Example (Dominant or Recessive)
3.19 understand how to interpret family pedigrees

Is the Affected allele Dominant or Recessive?

Affected Unaffected

Aa aa Aa Aa
DOMINANT

Aa aa Aa Aa AA aa

AA aa Aa
 Interpreting a Pedigree Chart (hard)
3.19 understand how to interpret family pedigrees

Determine if the pedigree chart shows: press press

• An autosomal disease
-The disease Allele is not on Sex
Chromosome (X Y)
-The disease Allele can be dominant or
recessive

• X-linked disease
-The disease Allele is found on X Sex
Chromosome
-( X = Normal Allele, Xr = Disease Recessive
Allele)
If it is a 50/50 ratio between men and
women. The disorder is autosomal.
Most of the males in the pedigree are
affected. The disorder is X-linked
Interpreting a Pedigree Chart (additional)
3.19 understand how to interpret family pedigrees

Sex Linked diseases can include:

• Hemophilia (Xr) - Recessive
• Colour blindness (Xr) - Recessive The phenotype of a Carrier
is “NOT DISEASED”
 Example (Dominant or Recessive)
3.19 understand how to interpret family pedigrees

Example of Pedigree Charts

• Is the affected trait Autosomal or X-linked?

AUTOSOMAL

If it is a 50/50 ratio between men and

women. The disorder is autosomal.
 Example (Dominant or Recessive)
3.19 understand how to interpret family pedigrees

Summary
• Pedigrees are family trees that explain your genetic
history.

• Pedigrees are used to find out the probability of a

child having a disorder in a particular family.

• To begin to interpret a pedigree, determine if the

disease or condition is autosomal or X-linked and
dominant or recessive.
 Monohybrid Cross Probability
3.20 predict probabilities of outcomes from monohybrid crosses

GIVE THE GENOTYPE RATIO:

GIVE THE PHENOTYPE RATIO:

GIVE THE GENOTYPE RATIO:

 Male or Female
3.21 understand that the sex of a person is controlled by one pair of chromosomes, XX in a female and XY in a male
 Male or Female
3.21 understand that the sex of a person is controlled by one pair of chromosomes, XX in a female and XY in a male

XX = Female
XY = Male
Determine the Sex (diagram it)
3.22 describe the determination of the sex of offspring at fertilisation, using a genetic diagram
 Diploid Cell Division
3.23 understand that division of a diploid cell by mitosis produces two cells which contain identical sets of chromosomes
 What are homologous chromosomes?
3.23 understand that division of a diploid cell by mitosis produces two cells which contain identical sets of chromosomes

Different organisms have different numbers of chromosomes. Humans

have 46 chromosomes. This is the diploid number of humans.

Chromosomes can be grouped in pairs called homologous

chromosomes. In each pair, one chromosome has been inherited
from the mother and the other inherited from the father.

chromosome from chromosome from

mother father

homologous pair
What are homologous chromosomes?
3.23 understand that division of a diploid cell by mitosis produces two cells which contain identical sets of chromosomes

2n

2n

2n

Body cells are: 2n - Diploid

Sex Cells are: n - Haploid
 What is Mitosis good for?
3.24 understand that mitosis occurs during growth, repair, cloning and asexual reproduction

Nerve cells
New cell growth
GROWTH (tissue)

Muscle cells
(tissue)
Scar tissue

RBC
Repair
Replace old cells

Skin

MITOSIS Cloning Dolly the sheep

Bacteria & Yeast Willow

Budding Tulips

Asexual Potatoes
Reproduction
Cuttings, Bulbs,
Tubers, Runners
Strawberries
 Meiosis Makes Gametes
3.25 understand that division of a cell by meiosis produces four cells, each with half the number of chromosomes, and that this results in the
formation of genetically different haploid gametes
 Meiosis Makes Gametes
3.25 understand that division of a cell by meiosis produces four cells, each with half the number of chromosomes, and that this results in the formation of
genetically different haploid gametes
3.27 know that in human cells the diploid number of chromosomes is 46 and the haploid number is 23

MITOSIS MEIOSIS
1) Produces 2 daughter cells 1) Produces 4 gamete cells
2) Daughter cells are diploid 2) Daughter cells are haploid
(have 23 pairs of chromosomes) (Only have 23 chromosomes)
3) Daughter cells are genetically 3) Gametes are different to
identical to each other. each other
4) Daughter cells are genetically 4) Gametes are different to
identical to the parent cell (no the parent cell (crossing over of
genetic crossing over) genetic material)
5) One stage process 5) Two stage process
6) Happens everywhere in the 6)Happens in Reproductive
body organs only
Random Fertilization and Variation
3.26 understand that random fertilisation produces genetic variation of offspring
 Key Word basic Summary
This topic, more than any other, confuses people. Remember these!

DNA: A genetic code

Gene: One instruction in the code telling a cell how to make a specific
protein
Allele: A different version of a gene
Chromosome: Coiled up DNA
Haploid number: the number of different chromosomes in a cell (23)
Diploid number: the total number of chromosomes in a cell (46)

Cell Division:
There are two types of cell division;

- Mitosis – used for growth, repair & asexual reproduction

 Nature Vs Nurture
3.28 understand that variation within a species can be genetic, environmental, or a combination of both
 Mutations
(not all x-men get superpowers)
3.29 understand that mutation is a rare, random change in genetic material that can be inherited
3.31 understand that many mutations are harmful but some are neutral and a few are beneficial

Mutation - a rare, random change in the genetic code of a gene.

The mutated gene will produce a slightly different protein to

the original non-mutant gene. The new protein might;
A) Work just as well as it did before (neutral mutation)
B) Work better than before (beneficial mutation)
C) Work worse / not at all (harmful mutation)

Beneficial mutations give a selective advantage to the individual.

Individuals with this kind of mutated allele are more likely to survive,
reproduce and pass their alleles on. This is the basis of:
Natural Selection
 Evolution by Natural Selection
3.30 describe the process of evolution by means of natural selection

Evolution is the process by which the range of

organisms on Earth change
New species arise through a process known as
NATURAL SELECTION
1) Living organisms produce more offspring than are needed
to replace them, not all of these off-spring grow up and
breed themselves. These offspring have different alleles.
2) Those organisms best suited to their local environment
survive best and breed, passing on their genetic
(genes/DNA) information to the next generation
3) In this way the different forms will become more and
more different until eventually they are a new species
 WHAT IS THE SELECTION METHOD
3.30 describe the process of evolution by means of natural selection

HOW TO BE SUCCESSFUL IN PASSING ON YOUR

GENES (A HOW TO 5 STEP GUIDE):
1) BE ATTRACTIVE (physical and social traits can make you more
successful with the opposite sex)
2) REPRODUCE OFTEN (The more offspring you make the better)
3) DON’T WASTE YOUR RESOURCES (Invest only the minimal
amount of resources in offspring to see them through to
reproduction)
4) HAVE A ‘DEEP’ GENE POOL (The more variable your offspring
the better chance of some of them surviving unexpected
catastrophes. A little bit of mutation/lots of alleles is not a bad
thing)
5) STAY ALIVE!! (Live long enough to reproduce………....then die.)
 DARWIN SAID IT BEST
3.30 describe the process of evolution by means of natural selection

Darwin came up with this theory

1) Darwin’s 1st Observation: Not all

individuals survive

2) Darwin’s 2nd Observation: There is

variation in a species

3) Darwin’s Conclusion: The better adapted

individuals survive (the “fittest”) and
reproduce, passing their alleles onto the
next generation.

www.darwinawards.com/
 THE SUPERBUGS
3.32 understand that resistance to antibiotics can increase in bacterial populations, and appreciate how such an increase can lead to infections
being difficult to control

1) Bacteria reproduce very frequently so mutations (different alleles) are common.

2) These mutations can mean that they are no longer affected/controlled by a certain
antibiotic

3) Surviving generations carry the mutation (allele)making it easier for them to survive.

4) If bacteria evolve over many generations to be resistant to drugs we are treating

them with then they are difficult to control

5) Sometimes they can be controlled using a different antibiotic

6) These bacteria in turn become resistant to new antibiotics due to the high rate or
reproduction and random mutations
✔
7) Currently some are becoming resistant to all current know antibiotics.
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA or golden staph), vancomycin-resistant
Enterococcus (VRE) and multi-drug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MDR-TB)
 The Makings of a Mutant (TA)
3.33 understand that the incidence of mutations can be increased by exposure to ionising radiation (for example gamma rays, X-rays and
ultraviolet rays) and some chemical mutagens (for example chemicals in tobacco).(TA)

Mutations are: a) inherited b) happen on their own

(although this is rare).
The frequency that mutation occurs naturally can be
increased by exposure to radiation
• gamma rays
• X-rays
• ultraviolet rays

And

Chemical mutagens
• chemicals in tobacco..Not Nicotine!)