TOPIC 3.

0
GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF
HIGHWAY AND STREETS

1
Topic Outlines

3.1 Sight Distance Concept – Stopping and

Overtaking Sight Distance

3.2 Horizontal Alignment – Curves, Superelevation

3.3 Vertical Alignment – Crest and Sag Vertical Curve

3.4 Road Cross Sectional Element

3.5 Provision for Cyclist and Pedestrians

3.6 Intersection Design – At Grade and Grade-separated

Intersections 2
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the topic, students should be
able to:
 Calculate and produce road alignment design.
(CO1,C03-PO1, PO4)

 Understand and provide sketch of road section

(include drainage and facilities). (CO1-PO1,PO4)

 Understand on the provision provide sketches of at-

grade and grade-separated interchanges. (CO1-
PO1,PO4)
3
INTRODUCTION

4
Examples of road physical appearance
as seen from various angles.

5
Examples of road physical appearance
as seen from top.

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Major Elements of Road Geometry

• Sight distances,
• Horizontal alignment,
• Vertical alignment,
• Cross-section, etc.

Each element is designed in accordance with various

standard of practices such as JKR, LLM, AASHTO,
HCM 2000 etc. to meet traffic flow characteristics.

7
Why Must We Follow The Standard Code
Of Practice In The Design?:

• To ensure uniformity in the design,

• To ensure smooth and safe traffic

movements, and

• To assist engineers in designing the

engineering details of the road sections.
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Aspects Considered in Road Design

• Function – to serve as inland linkage between

locations for moving people and goods.

• Safety – roadways must be designed with safety

characteristics.

• Comfort – road features must be designed and built

for comfort riding quality.

• Economic – in terms of construction and vehicle’s

operating costs.

• Aesthetic – roadways must be built as an element

of the environment; its design must include
aesthetical values to suit the existing environment. 9
Road Hierarchy For Design Purposes
In Malaysia (Rural)
Table 1

Average 3,000 1,000 150

daily traffic  10,000 to to to < 150
(veh/d) 10,000 3,000 1,000

Road
R6 R5 R4 R3 R2 R1/R1a
Hierarchy

Entry/Exit
full semi semi semi none none
control

Source: Arahan Teknik Jalan (8/86)

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Criteria That Govern The Geometry
Design
1) Terrain – Influences the design of both horizontal

and vertical alignments. Earthworks and construction

costs usually depend on the vertical alignment and
terrain.

Road terrain is divided into 3 types, i.e:

(i) Level – if the average slope of the contour is less
than 3%
(ii) Rolling – if slope in the range of 3-25%.
(iii) Mountainous – if slope greater than 25%.
11
Criteria That Govern The Geometry Design
(cont..)
2) Design Speed – The highest speed which can be

safely achieved for design and physical characteristic

that will affect the vehicle operation.
Design Speed (km/h)
Road Terrain
Hierarchy
Level Rolling Mountainous

R6 120 100 80
R5 100 80 70
R4 90 70 60
R3 70 60 50
R2 60 50 40
R1 40 30 20 12
Criteria That Govern The Geometry
Design (cont…)
3) Design Traffic Volume & Ingress/Egress Control –

The ADT stated in Table 1 may be taken as an

estimate of traffic at the end of the design life of the road to
build.
The ingress/egress control (Table 1) depends
on the requirements and its suitability with the
type of the road to build.

4) Design Vehicle – Weight, size, and operational

characteristics of a vehicle determine the design of the
basic elements of a road section, i.e., radius of road
bends, pavement width, uphill and downhill gradients, etc.
Standards for design vehicle are stipulated in Arahan 13
 Topic 3.1
Sight Distance Concept –
Stopping and Overtaking
Sight Distance

14
Sight Distance
Sight distance is length of road ahead which all
objects are visible by the driver while driving. The
distance is influenced by factors such as:

• Driver’s perception & reaction time,

• Deceleration & acceleration rates,

• Friction between tyre and road surface,

15
Criteria Measuring Sight Distance
• Height of driver’s eye
The eyes of the average driver in a passenger
vehicle are considered to be 1.07m (3.5ft) above the
road surface.

• Height of the object

A height of object of 150mm is assumed for
measuring stopping sight distance and the height of
object for passing sight distance is 1.32m (4.25ft)
both measure from the road surface

Week 8 – 1st Hour  Take a 5 minute break! 16

 Topic 3.1.1
Stopping Sight Distance
(SSD)

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Definition of SSD

•A distance acquired by a driver

driving at a specified speed, to
stop his vehicle safely once he
notices any obstruction or warning
on the road.

• For safety,
safety all highways must be
designed for minimum stopping
sight distance (SSD).
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Minimum Stopping Sight Distance

Assumption: There in gradient, G = 0%.

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Design
Consists of two components:
(a Distance travelled during perception time (d 1):

d1  0.28Vt meter

V = vehicle’s speed (km/h)

t = perception–reaction time (sec) – usually take 2.5s

(b) Distance travelled during braking (d 2):

V U 2 2
d2 
254 f  G 
meter

V = initial speed (km/h)

U = final speed (km/h) = 0 if vehicle stops
G = gradient of the road (+ve for uphill –v= for downhill)
f = side friction between road surface and tyre 20
Design (cont..)

 Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)

= d1 + d 2
= (0.28Vt) + {(V2 – U2)/254(f + G)} meter

d1

d2

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Some Examples Of The Application Of
Sight Distance Design
• To ensure that safety elements are included in the
geometry design.
• To determine the locations of warning/reminder system
to the drivers/users.
ZON HAD LAJU

SIMPANG
70
300 METER
DI HADAPAN
500 METER
DI HADAPAN

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Example 1:
A man driving his car at the speed of 80km/hr on a
level and straight road, has the perception and reaction
time of 2.5s. If the side friction changes linearly from 0.40
for the the speed of 20km/ hr to 0.30 for the speed of 100km/hr,
determine the SSD for the driver.
Solution:
v = 80km/hr,
t = 2.5s
f = 0.325 ~ 0.33 (from interpolation)
G = 0% (means that : a level and straight road )
a) Distance travelled during perception
d1 = 0.28Vt
= 0.28 x 80km/hr x 2.5s = 56m
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Example 1 (cont..):
Solution:
b) Distance travelled during braking
V 2 U 2
d2 
254 f  G 
80 2  0 2
d2 
2540.33  0 
= 76.4m

 SSD = d1 + d2
= 56m + 76.4m
= 132.4m ~ 140m
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Example 2:
A man driving his car at the design speed of 80km/hr on a
-3% road, has the perception and reaction time of 2.5s.
If the side friction changes linearly from 0.25 for the the
speed of 20km/ hr to 0.10 for the speed of 100km/hr, determine
the SSD for the driver.
Solution:
v = 80km/hr,
t = 2.5s
f = 0.138 ~ 0.14 (from interpolation)
G = -3%
a) Distance travelled during perception
d2 = 0.28Vt
= 0.28 x 80km/hr x 2.5s = 56m
25
Example 2 (cont..):
Solution:
b) Distance travelled during braking
V 2 U 2
d2 
254 f  G 
80 2  0 2
d2 
2540.14  0.03
= 229.1m

 SSD = d1 + d2
= 56m + 229.1m
= 285.1m
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 Topic 3.1.2
Overtaking/Passing Sight
Distance (OSD@PSD)

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Definition of OSD

A minimum distance acquired

by a driver to get off his lane and
speed up to overtake the car in
front, on a 2-lane (2-way) road
and then get back into the
actual lane safely, without any
interference to the oncoming
vehicle of opposite lane.
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The Distance

Oncoming vehicle
Overtaking Overtaken in the opposite lane
vehicle vehicle

d1 d2 d3 d4
D

Overtaking Sight Distance, D

= d1 + d2 + d3 + d4
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The Distance (cont..)
d1 = Distance for driver to decide whether it is safe to
overtake and to accelerate to overtaking speed.
This time period has been described as hesitation time
and is about + 3.5s for comfortable overtaking
condition.
= t1 (V-m+0.5at1) meter
t1 = hesitation time (usually 3.5s)
V = average speed overtaking (km/hr)
m = difference speed of overtaking and overtaken vehicle
a = average accelaration (km/hr/s)
d2 = distance traveled in opposing lane (overtaking distance)
= Vt2 meter
V = average speed (km/hr)
t2 = time taken by overtaking vehicle being on the 30
The Distance (cont..)
d3 = Clearance distance to opposing vehicles

d4 = Distance traversed by an opposing

vehicle
= 0.5d2

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Minimum Passing Sight Distance

Week 8 – 2nd Hour 32

Selamat Hari
Raya
Aidiladha
&
Cuti Pertengahan 33
Week 9
 Topic 3.2
Horizontal Alignment

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Overview

• It concerns with the design of the road section

as it is seen from bird’s eye view –is it a straight
section or a road bend?.

• If a road bend is required, what is the shape and

the radius of the bend?
- Base on a simple circular curve
- Base on a spiral curve (i.e. a combination of a
circular curve and transition curves)

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36
Circular Curve (Physical Property)

V 2
R= _________________
meter
127 (e + f)

R
V = design speed in km/h
e = superelevation
f = road surface friction

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Example 3: Curve Radius
A curving roadway has a design speed of 110 km/hr. At one
horizontal curve, the superelevation has been set at 6.0%
and the coefficient of road surface friction is found to be

0.10. Determine the minimum radius of the curve that will provide
safe vehicle operation.
Solution:
V = 110km/hr,
e = 0.06
f = 0.10
V2
R
127(e  f )

110 2
R
127(0.06  0.10) = 595.5m
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Circular Curve (Geometric Property)

PI = external angle

L
PC
PC PT

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Circular Curve (Geometric Property)
PC = Point of curve (the beginning point of horizontal curve)
PI = Point of tangent intersection
PT = Point of tangent ( the ending point of horizontal curve)
T = Tangent length
= 
R tan
2
M = Middle ordinate
 
= R1  cos 
 2
 1 
E = External distance = R  1
 cos( / 2 
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Example 4: Determine Stationing
A horizontal curve is designed with a 600 m radius and is
known to have a tangent length of 52 m. The PI is at station
CH 2000. Determine the stationing of the PT.
Solution:
 CH 2000
T  R tan
2

T  600 tan
2
∆ = 9.9o
R
L
180

= 104m
PC = PI – T = 2000 – 52 = CH 1948 41
Transition Curve
• When vehicles enter or leave a circular
horizontal curve, the gain or loss of
centrifugal force cannot be effected instantaneously,
considering safety and comfort.

• In such cases, the insertion of transition curves

between tangents and circular curves warrants
consideration.

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Transition Curve (cont..)
A properly designed transition curve provides
the following advantages:

• A natural, easy to follow path for drivers such that

the centrifugal force increases and decreases
gradually as a vehicle enters and leaves a circular
curve
• A convenient desirable arrangement for
superelevation runoff
• Flexibility in the widening of sharp curves
• Enhancement
Enhance in the appearance of the highway.

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Spiral Curve (Geometric Property)

A B C
θ
LB

R
D
V3
BC = DE =LT =
R 46.7 qR
E
θT
CD = LB = R{(θ - 2θT)rad}
α θT

L
θT =
2R

Total length, L = BCDE = 2LT + LB

44
Example 5:
A curve of a road section is designed with a combination
of circular and transition curve and the design parameters

are given below:

Design speed = 90km/hr

Central angle of curve, θ = 15o
Side friction, f = 0.12
Superelevation, e = 6%
Radial accelaration, q = 0.9m/s

Determine the minimum radius of circular curve, the length of

transition curve and the total length required for above criteria.

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Example 5:
Solution:
V2 90 2
R
127(e  f )
 = 355m
127(0.06  0.12)

V3 903
LT   = 49m
46.7 qR 46.7 x0.9 x355
L 49
T   = 0.069rad
2R 2 x355

LB = R{(θ - 2θT)rad}
= 355{0.2618 – (2x 0.069)}
= 44m
Total length, L = 2LT + LB = 2(49) + 44 = 142m
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Superelevation, e

• When vehicles traverses a horizontal curve,

the centrifugal force acts horizontally outwards
through the center of gravity of vehicle
WV 2
• Centrifugal force, P =
gR
• Centrifugal force acting on a vehicle negotiating a
horizontal curve has 2 effects:

i) Tendency to overturn

ii) Tendency to skid laterally

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Superelevation, e (cont..)
• In order to counteract the effect of centrifugal
force to reduce the tendency of the vehicle to
overturn or skid, the outer edge of pavement is
raised with respect to the inner edge, which is
known as superelevation, e
W

P
e
1
F
α

48
Superelevation, e (cont..)
• The max rates of e usable are controlled by
several factors such as climatic conditions,
terrain conditions and frequency of very
slow moving vehicles, vehicles speed. Max rate
of 0.10 is used for rural and 0.06 for urban
W

P
e
1
F
α

49
Stopping Sight Distance, SSD

SSD

m
CL highway
Obstruction

CL inside lane

50
Stopping Sight Distance, SSD (cont..)

SSD

51
Stopping Sight Distance, SSD (cont..)

** Take v in km/hr and t in s. The answer is straight away

in “meter”.

 28.65SSD 
m  R 1  cos 
 R 

52
Example 6
Question:
A horizontal curve having a radius of 800m forms part of a
two-lane highway that has a posted limit of 80km/hr. If the
highway is flat at this section, determine the minimum
distance a large billboard can be placed from the centre line of the
inside lane of the curve, without reducing the required SSD.
Assume perception-reaction time as 2.5 s and f= 0.10.

Solution:
R = 800m
v = 80km/hr
t = 2.5s
f = 0.10
53
Example 6 (cont..)
Solution (cont..):

= 56m + 252m
= 308m

 28.65SSD 
m  R 1  cos 
 R
 28.65(308) 
m  800 1  cos  = 14.8m
 800 
Week 10 – 1st Hour  Take a 5 minute break! 54
 Topic 3.3
Vertical Alignment

55
Overview
• Straight line connected by vertical curve with the
objective:

- To give a gradual change from one tangent grade

to another without neglecting the drivers comfort.

- To avoid humps

- To provide safe sight distance for vehicles to stop and

manouver.

56
57
58
59
Main Components
i) Uphill and downhill slope (gradient)
gradient
• A good slope/gradient is when a vehicle can be
controlled well in the condition of high gear for
uphill slope and without having to brake for downhill
slope.
• Vehicle performance (especially HGV) depends on the
slope condition and length.
length
• HGV speed will be affected if the uphill gradient is too
slope and long.
• Critical slope length is the maximum length of uphill
slope that HGV can go through without losing much
speed.

60
Main Components (cont..)

ii) Summit curve

• Main criteria - :
- provision of minimum slipping
sight distance
- adequate drainage
- comfortable in operation
- pleasant appearance
Notes: Summit – the highest point
61
Type of Vertical Curve
There are 2 types of vertical curve which are:
i) Crest vertical curve

∆
-G
+G 1 2

ii) Sag vertical curve

L
-G +G 1
2

62
 Length of Crest Curve (cont..)
i) For S > L

Lmin  2S 

200 H1  H 2 
2

A= G1+ G2
A
H1 H2
H1 = Height of eye above road
surface (1.07m @ 3.5ft)
L -G
H2 = Height of object above road +G 1 2

surface (0.15m @0.5ft) S

S = Sight distance
404
 Lmin  2S 
A
63
 Length of Crest Curve
i) For S < L
AS 2
Lmin 

200 H1  H 2 2

H1
A= G1+ G2

H2
H1 = Height of eye above road
surface (1.07m @ 3.5ft)
S
+G
1
-G
H2 = Height of object above road 2

L
surface (0.15m @0.5ft)
S = Sight distance
2
AS
 Lmin 
404
64
65
66
Example 7
Question:
A crest vertical curve is to be designed to join a +3% grade
with a -3% grade at a section of a two-lane highway.
Determine the minimum length of the curve if the design speed of
the highway is 80km/hr and S<L. Assume that the perception-
reaction time is 2.5s and the friction is 0.3

Solution:

67
Example 7 (cont..)
Solution:
= 56m + 93.3m
= 149.3m

AS 2
Lmin 
404
6.0(149.32 )
Lmin 
404
= 331m

68
Example 7 (cont..)
Solution:
= 56m + 76.35m
= 132.4m

AS 2
Lmin 
404
6.0(132.4 2 )
Lmin 
404

= 260m

69
Length of Sag Curve
S

i) For S > L
200( H  S tan  )
Lmin  2S 
A
H1 = Height of headlight above road surface (0.6m @ 2ft)
β = Inclined angle of the headlight relative to the horizontal plane
of car (1o)
S = Sight distance
120  3.5S
 Lmin  2S 
A 70
Length of Sag Curve (cont..)
ii) For S < L
AS 2
Lmin 
200( H  S tan  )

H1 = Height of headlight above road surface (0.6m @ 2ft)

β = Inclined angle of the headlight relative to the horizontal plane
of car (1o)
S = Sight distance
2
AS
 Lmin 
120  3.5S

71
Length of Sag Curve (cont..)
iii) Minimum length for the comfort criterion
• Vehicle traverses a sag vertical curve, both gravitational and
centrifugal forces act in combination, resulting in greater
effect than crest curve.
• Comfort ride difficult to measure due to factors i.e weight
carried, body suspension, tyre friction, etc.
• A Comfortable ride will be provided if the radial acceleration
<1ft/sec2.
• Minimum length for comfort criterion
Av 2 **v in mi/hr. Answer
Lmin  in unit “feet”. Must
46.5 convert to “meter”.

• Appearance (rule of thumb) **In unit “feet”..Must

Lmin  100 A convert to “meter”.
72
73
Example 8
Question:
A sag vertical curve is to be designed to join a -3% grade
with a +3% grade at a section of a two-lane highway.
Determine the minimum length of the curve if the design speed of
the highway is 80km/hr. Assume that the perception-reaction
time is 2.5s and the friction is 0.3.
Solution:

= 56m + 93.3m
= 149.3m
74
Example 8 (cont..)
Solution:
* Determine whether S < L or S > L for the headlight sight
distance criterion.

For S > L,
120  3.5S
Lmin  2 S 
A
120  3.5(149.3)
Lmin  2(149.3) 
6
Lmin  191.5m
S < L …This condition does not
apply
Try for S < L
75
Example 8 (cont..)
Solution:
* Determine minimum length criterion
Av 2
Lmin 
46.5
6(49.7 mi / hr 2 )
Lmin 
46.5
= 318.8 ft @ 97.2m
* Determine minimum length for general appearance
Lmin  100 A
Lmin  100(6)
= 600 ft @ 183m
 Take Lmin = 183m (take the largest length)
Week 10 – 2nd Hour 76
 Topic 3.4
Road Cross Sectional
Element

78
Typical Elements of Highway Cross-section
Right-of-Way

shoulder Traffic Traffic shoulder

reserv lane lane reserv
e e

(a) single-carriageway road

Right-of-Way

shoulder Traffic Traffic shoulder

reserv lane Road lane reserv
e Median e

(b) dual-carriageway road

79
80
 Topic 3.5
Provision – the action of providing or supplying

Provision for Cyclist and

Pedestrians

81
Overview
• Bicycle and pedestrian lane ;
- That part of highway specifically reserved for the
exclusive use of bicycle riders

• Bicycle lanes can be described by striping, signing or

pavement marking.
marking These lanes should always be one-
way with traffic. Minimum width under ideal condition is
4ft – 5ft.
1ft = 0.3048m

• Design speed for bicycle lane according to

ASSHTO is 20mi/hr for paved paths.
1mi = 1.609344km
82
Overview (cont..)

83
84
 Topic 3.6
Intersection Design - At
Grade and Grade Separated
Intersection

85
Overview
• Intersection are important part of a road system.

• Their capacity controls the volume of traffic

within the network.

• The term intersection refer to both intersections and

junctions – where two or more roads cross or meet.

86
Types of Conflict
• Four basic types of intersection conflicting
maneuvers:
- Diverging
- Merging,
- Crossing and
- Weaving

• The number of conflict points depends on:

- Number of approaches
- Number of lane on each approach
- Type of signal control
- Extent of channelization
- Movement permitted
87
Factors Influencing the Intersection Design (i-iv)

i) Traffic volume & characteristics

• Design peak hour volume.
• Needs of commercial vehicles should be considered.
• Operating speeds and turning path requirement, type of

traffic control.
• Pedestrian, buses requirement.

ii) Topography and environment,

• Alignment and grade of approach roads,
• Need for drainage,
• Extent of interference with public
utilities, proper access

88
Factors Influencing The Design (cont..)
iii) Economics,
Economics
• Variation should be justify by
commensurate benefit to traffic.

iv) Human factors

• Drivers tend to act according
to habit,
• Tend to follow natural path of
movement, and
• May become confused when surprised
89
Desirable Minimum Spacing
Depends on factors:
• Weaving distance

• Storage length required for queuing traffic

• Length of right turning lanes 90

91
Type of Intersection

• At Grade Intersection

• Grade Separated Intersection

• Channelization

Week 11 – 1st Hour  Take a 5 minute break! 92

 Topic 3.6.1
At Grade Intersection

93
Definition
• An at-grade intersection is a junction at which
two or more transport axes cross at
the same level (or grade).

• With areas of high or fast traffic, an at-grade

intersection normally requires a traffic control
device such as a stop sign or traffic light or
railway signal to manage conflicting traffic

94
What type of traffic control device that
can be seen from here?

95
 Topic 3.6.2
Grade Separated
Intersection

96
Definition
• Grade separation is the process of aligning a
junction of two or more transport axes at
different heights (grades)

• To avoid disrupting the traffic flow on other transit

routes when they cross each other.

• Also known as interchange.

interchange

• Type of separation structure:

- Overpass
97
Which one is Overpass & Underpass?

98
 Topic 3.6.3
Channelization

99
Definition
• The direction of traffic flow at intersections to
definite path,
path by means of traffic markings,
islands or others.

• An unchannelized intersection is the simplest type

but is the most dangerous and inefficient.

100
101
 Effect of Channelization

Before Channelization After Channelization

102
The Purpose
Channelization serves the following purpose:
• Separation of conflicts
• Control of angle of conflict
• Control of speed
• Protection of traffic
• Protection of pedestrians
• Elimination of excessive intersectional area
• Blockage of prohibited movement
• Location of traffic control devices

103
The Principles (i – viii)
The design channelized intersection should also

be governed by the following principles:

i) Motorist should not be required to make more than one
decision at a time.
ii) Sharp reverse curves and turning paths greater than 900
should be avoided.
avoided
iii) Merging and weaving area should be as long as possible, but
other area of conflict between vehicles should be reduced to
minimum.

104
The Principles (cont..)
iv) Crossing traffic streams that do not weave or merge
should intersect at 900 but a range of 60-1200 is
acceptable.
v) The intersecting angle of merging streams should be such
that adequate sight distance is provided.
vi) Refuge areas for turning vehicles should not interfere
with the movement of through vehicle.
vii) Prohibited turns should be block wherever possible.
viii) Decisions on the location of essential traffic control devices
should be a component of the design process.

Week 11 – 2nd Hour 105