TOPIC 2.

0
TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM AND
CAPACITY ANALYSIS

1
Topic Outlines

2.1 Traffic Stream Characteristic and Flow Trend

2.2 Speed Analysis – Type of Speed and Speed
Studies Application
2.3 Headway and Spacing Analysis
2.4 Traffic Capacity and LOS Analysis for
Expressway
and Two Lane Rural Highway.
2.5 Intersection Design- Signalized and
Unsignalized
Junction
2.6 Traffic Control Devices

2
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the topic, students should be
able to:
 Analyze traffic studies data for specific application.
(CO3-PO1,P04)
 Design appropriate signalized and unsignalized
junction using stated method. (CO1,CO2-PO1,PO4)
 Design appropriate traffic control system at the
designed junction. (CO1,CO2-PO1,PO4)

3
 TOPIC 2.1
Traffic Stream
Characteristic and
Flow Trend

4
Common traffic parameters that are of

traffic engineers / planners interest

include:

• Traffic Flow or Volume (q)

• Speed (u @ v)
• Density or Concentration (k @ D)
• Headway (H)

5
Traffic Flow or Volume (q)

Define as the number of vehicles passing a

specific reference point on a road section
within a specified period of time.

6
Traffic Volume or Flow (q)

The count can be directional or all

directions.
Typical units:
vehicles/hour (hourly traffic-vph),
vehicles/day (daily traffic),
vehicles/year (annual traffic), etc.

7
Traffic Volume or Flow, q (Cont..)
Traffic flow data is usually collected to obtain
factual data concerning the movement of vehicles
at selected points on the street, example:
(a) Annual Traffic
(i) To compute crash rates
(ii) To indicate trends in volume

(b) Average Daily Traffic (ADT) & Annual Average

Daily Traffic (AADT)
(i) To measure present demand
(ii) To programme capital improvements

(c) Hourly Traffic

(i) To determine peak periods
(ii) To evaluate capacity deficiencies
(iii) To establish traffic controls
8
Average Daily Traffic - ADT (veh/day)
• ADT – Distribution of traffic flow every day from
Monday to Sunday

Example:
Day Average Daily Volume
Monday 1820
Tuesday 1588
Wednesday 1406
Thursday 1300
Friday 1289
Saturday 1275
Sunday 1332
Total (veh in week) 10010
ADT (veh/day) 1430
9
Annual Average Daily Traffic – AADT
(veh/day/year)

• AADT – Distribution of traffic flow every day for the

whole year (365 days)

• Acquired by doing survey work twice in a year.

• Each survey take a week with 6 months interval

AADT = volume of traffic volume of traffic in

+
in 7 days (March) 7 days (Sept)

14

10
Peak Hour Volume (PHV)
 Maximum number of vehicles that pass a point
on a highway during 60 consecutive minutes.

 PHV used for:

- Design of the geometric character of highway (intersection
signalization, channelization).
- Capacity analysis
- Development of parking regulation.

11
Traffic Composition
 Vehicular traffic consists of various types
of vehicle – i.e. various sizes, performances,
and characteristics.

 A vehicle is converted into an Equivalent Passenger

Car unit (PCU) for consistency in interpreting road
traffic performance, congestion, road geometry and
traffic signal analysis and design.

 PCU is defined as the standard unit measurement

which is designed to give the effect of an equivalent
numbers of passenger cars.

12
 PCU Converter For Road Section

Traffic Composition Rural Urban

Private Car, Taxi, Trishawmotor 1.0 1.0
Small Good Vehicle & Van 2.0 2.0
Medium Good Vehicle & Lorries 2.5 2.5
Heavy Good Vehicle & Lorries 3.0 3.0
Buses 3.0 3.0
Motorcycle 1.0 0.75

13
PCU
Example:
The traffic flow of a rural road is 350veh/hr. The
volume consist of 200 cars, 50 medium lorries, 50
buses and 50 motorcycles. Determine the traffic

volume in PCU

Answer:
Car 200 x 1.0 = 200
Medium Lorries 50 x 2.5 = 125
Bus 50 x 3.0 = 150
Motorcycle 50 x 1.0 = 50
525 pcu/hr
14
Rationale of PCU
Example:
Traffic volumes on a section of rural road during
morning peak hour is 500 veh/h and during the
evening peak hour is also 500 veh/h.

Can you comment on the traffic flow conditions for both

situations? (e.g. which peak hour traffic would you think is
the busiest or congested condition compare to the other?)

Answer:
It would be difficult for us to say which peak hour is
representing the congested situation as both traffic
volumes are equal in terms of veh/h.

15
If information of traffic compositions for both peak-hours are
available as follows:
For AM Peak: 50% cars, 20% medium lorries, 10% buses,
and 20% motorcycles.
For PM Peak: 30% cars, 25% medium lorries,15% heavy
lorries, 15% buses, 15% motorcycles.

Can you describe the differences between the two peak hour
traffic in terms of traffic flow conditions?

Answer:
Let us express the peak hour traffic in terms of pcu/h, i.e.

AM Peak: (0.5x1 + 0.2x2.5 + 0.1x3.0 + 0.2x1) x 500 = 750 pcu/h

PM Peak: (0.3x1 + 0.25x2.5 + 0.15x3.0 + 0.15x3.0 + 0.15x1) x 500
= 988 pcu/h
This shows that the evening peak hour traffic is busier compare to
the morning traffic.
16
 TOPIC 2.2
Speed Analysis

Week 4 – 1st Hour  Take a 5 minute break! 17

Speed (u)
Speed is defined as the distance travelled per
unit time. The parameter is usually used to
describe the quality of journey and the
performance of road network in accommodating
traffic demand.

Types of speed:
i) Spot Speed,
ii) Journey/Overall Speed,
iii) Running Speed,
iv) Time Mean Speed, and
v) Space Mean Speed.

18
i) Spot Speed

This speed is the instantaneous speed of

a vehicle passing a point on the roadway.

If the data for a group of vehicles is collected

properly, results from the sample should
represent the speed characteristics of the
entire population of vehicles passing the site.

19
i) Spot Speed (cont..)

Time taken from A to B = t

A Distance = S B

S
speed 
t

If S  100 meters, then the speed

measured is known as Spot Speed.

20
Typical Use of Spot Speed
 To establish speed trends
 Traffic control planning
- establish speed limits
- determine safe speeds at curves
- establish proper location for traffic signs
- establish lengths of no–passing zones
- evaluate intersection sight distance
 Before–and–after studies
 Accident analysis
 Geometric design – i.e. road alignments and stopping
sight distance
21
Journey Speed & Running Speed
Journey/overall speed is the distance divided by
total journey time. Total journey time includes all
delays due to traffic.

Journey speed = distance/total journey time

Running speed is the distance divided by running time,

i.e. total journey time minus delays. (Running time is the
time that the vehicle is actually in motion.)

Running speed = distance/(total journey time – delays)

Both speeds are usually as a result of travel time and

delay study – used to evaluate road performance.
22
 Example:
Evaluate journey & running speeds for the following situation & interpret
the result:
A B
J1 J2 J4 J5

J3

8 km

Assume Total Travel Time including delay due to traffic = 32 minutes

Assume Delays at each junction: J1 = 5 min, J2 = 5 min, J3 = 3 min,
J4 = 4 min, & J5 = 6 min.
Answer:
Average Journey Speed = 8km x (1 h x 60 min) /32 min = 15 km/h.
Average Running Speed = 8km x (1 h x 60 min)/(32 – 23)min = 53.3 km/h.
Interpretation:
Since Journey Speed  Running Speed  Drivers experience heavy traffic
flow & inefficient traffic control system at junctions. System requires
improvements. 23
Time Mean Speed & Space Mean Speed
Time mean speed is the average of speed of total
vehicles speed passing a reference point of a road
Section. Equal to arithmetic mean.

Time Mean Speed = Total speed of vehicles/Total vehicles

Space mean speed is the total distance a vehicle pass

through divided by the total time the vehicle acquire.

Space Mean Speed = Total distance/ Total journey time

24
 TOPIC 2.2.1
STATISTIC & TRAFFIC
DATA ANALYSIS

25
Statistic
 Statistics is the branch of scientific method which
deals with the data obtained by counting or
measuring the properties of population of natural
phenomena.

 This branch of study includes:

- The process of collecting data
- The study of manipulation and arrangement of
figures using mathematical processes, and
- Interpretation of the figures

26
Traffic Data Analysis

Understanding of traffic data – types of

data, data presentation and description,
validity, basic statistical distribution of the
data, etc.

27
Accuracy of Sampling
 Sampling is necessary because it is
usually impracticable to test the entire population.

 Each and every sample must be selected in a random

manner so that it is representative of the population
from which it is drawn

 A value by sampling is absolutely accurate only for the

sample itself. For the population which it represents, a
sample can only give an estimation whose accuracy is
expressed in terms of probability.
probability

 Therefore, the greater the size of the sample (i.e.

number of observations) the greater the confidence
that can be placed on the estimation for the population.

28
Data Description
Data is an information which in general has
2 main characteristics;

a) Qualitative – involves non-numerical data,

e.g. consider “YES” or “NO” as an answer to
questionnaires

b) Quantitative – involves numerical data

29
Quantitative Data

Two ways of describing data are:

Numerically Graphically

 Express as a number  Express as an Image

30
Numerical Descriptive Measures

Two most common measures are:

• Measures of Central Tendency

• Measures of Scatter

Week 4 – 2nd Hour 31

Measures of Central Tendency
i. Arithmetic Mean (or simply known as ‘mean’)
– Mean of a set of measurements is the sum
of the measurements divided by the total
number of measurements:
n

( f X ) i i where i = 1,2,3,
X i 1
……..
n n
fi 1
i

E.g., consider this set of data: 1, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, 10

Mean = 1 + 3 + 4 + 7 + 8 + 9 + 10 = 6
32
Measures of Central Tendency (cont..)
ii. Median
The median of a set of measurements is the middle
value when the measurements are arranged in order
of magnitude. It, therefore, divides a histogram and a
frequency polygon into two equal areas.

E.g., consider this set of data: 1, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, 10

Median = 50th percentile = P50 = 7

iii. Mode – is the measurement that occurs most often

E.g., consider this set of data: 1, 3, 3, 7, 8, 9, 10

Mode = 3 33
Measures of Scatter
i. Range – the range of a set of measurements
is defined to be the difference between the
largest and the smallest measurements of the
set.

eg. 15, 15, 20, 21, 30, 12, 11, 5, 40, 40, 26

Range = largest – smallest = 40 – 5 = 35

34
Measures of Scatter (cont..)
ii. Percentile – the rth percentile of a set of n
measurements arranged in order of
magnitude is that value that has r% of the
measurements below it.
100
90 (a) 85th percentile of X = a

80
Cumulative frequency, %

70
60 (b) 50th percentile of X = b
50
40
30
20 (c) 15th percentile of X = c
10
0
(c) (b) (a)
X
35
 Measures of Scatter (cont..)
iii. Variance (S2 @ 2) –
is a measure of how far a set of numbers are spread out from
each other.

it is one of several descriptors of a probability distribution,

describing how far the numbers lie from the mean (expected value)
2
n n
 n 
 i
X 2
 nX 2  fX i   fX i
2

S 2  i 1   i 1 
S2  i 1 or  f   f 
E.g.
n 1 



36
Measures of Scatter (cont..)
iv. Standard Deviation (SD)
SD is a measure of the average deviation of readings from
their mean.

A low standard deviation indicates that the data points tend to

be very close to the mean, whereas high standard deviation
indicates that the data points are spread out over a large range
of values.
SD  variance
E.g.

37
Measures of Scatter (cont..)
v. Standard Error (SE) –
is the standard deviation of the SD
SE 
sample mean estimate of n
a population mean.
Confidence Interval - is a
particular kind of interval estimate
of a population parameter and is
used to indicate the reliability of
an estimate.

38
Graphical Descriptive Measures

i. Histogram
Frequency (numbers)

speed class (km/h)

39
Graphical Descriptive Measures (cont..)

i. Cumulative Frequency Curve

100
Cumulative frequency, %

90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Speed (Xi), km/h
40
Example 1: Spot Speed Analysis
Analyse the following spot speed data based on a
sample of 172 vehicles traversing a section of sub
urban roadway.

41
Solution
Tabulate data as follows
Speed class Mid point Frequency % of Cum.
2
v (km/h) vi Fi Freq. Freq. (%) F i * vi F i * vi
20 - 25 22.5 1 0.6 0.6 22.5 506.25
25 - 30 27.5 3 1.7 2.3 82.5 2268.75
30 - 35 32.5 6 3.5 5.8 195.0 6337.5
35 - 40 37.5 13 7.6 13.4 487.5 18281.25
40 - 45 42.5 25 14.5 27.9 1062.5 45156.25
45 - 50 47.5 34 19.8 47.7 1615.0 76712.5
50 - 55 52.5 31 8.0 65.7 1627.5 85443.75
55 - 60 57.5 27 15.7 81.4 1552.5 89268.75
60 - 65 62.5 18 10.5 91.9 1125.0 70312.5
65 - 70 67.5 9 5.2 97.1 607.5 41006.25
70 - 75 72.5 4 2.3 99.4 290.0 21025
75 - 80 77.5 1 0.6 100.0 77.5 6006.25
Total 600 172 8745 462325 42
Solution (cont..)
n

 Mean speed =  ( f v=)8745/172 = 50.84 km/h

i i
v i 1
n

f i 1
i

 n  n 
2

 Std deviation:   f i vi
2
  f i vi   
 462325  8745  
2
 i 1  
SD    i 1      
 f  f    172  172  
     
   

= 10.16 km/h

So, which one the results represents?

Blue @ Red graph?

43
Density (k)
Concentration or density of traffic is the
number of vehicles in a given length of
roadway or a lane, i.e. vehicles/km.

It is also a common parameter used to describe

road performance.

44
 TOPIC 2.2.2

Speed, Flow, Density

Relationships

45
The Interpretation
Flow rate = Speed x Density
or
q = uk …………………………(i)

 uF 
u  uF    k …………..(ii)
 kJ 

 uF  2 ………….(iii)
q  k  uF    k
 kJ 

 kJ  2
q  u  kJ     u ………….(iv)
 uF 
46
 (i) u-k relationship

 uF 
u  uF    k
uF
 kJ 
A ____
Stable flow
------- Unstable flow
uC = uF/2
kj = Jammed density
u (km/h)

uF = Free flow speed

B

k (veh/km) kC = kJ/2 kJ
47
(ii) q-k relationship  uF  2
q  k  uF    k
maximum  kJ  2  kJ 
 u  kJ     u
theoreticalqflow
qC
 uF qc= kjuf
4
A B
q1 x x

UB
q (vph)

Stable
UA Unstable

k1 k2

k (veh/km) kC = kJ/2 kJ
48
 (iii) q-u relationship
 kJ  2
q  u  kJ   u
uF  uF 
A
u1

theoretical flow
maximum
uC = uF/2 x
u (km/h)

x
u2
B

q (vph) q1 qC
49
Example 2.2.2.2
Traffic volume during a stable free-flowing condition is 600 veh/h
with an average speed of 75 km/h. Estimate the average speed
of traffic under congested situation for the same volume of traffic
if speed & flow are related. The maximum free-flow speed for the
road section is 90 km/h.

Solution:
First, sketch the parabolic curve for q–u relationship.
(ii) q-u relationship
q1 = 600 veh/h; uf = 90 km/h
uF Point A represent the stable flow
A
u1 region with the corresponding
maximum capacity

speed u1 = 75 km/h.
uC = uF/2

Point B represent congested flow

u (km/h)

u2
B
for q1 = 600 veh/h.

q (vph) q1 qC  u2 = 90-75 = 15 km/h

Week 5 – 1st Hour  Take a 5 minute break! 50

 TOPIC 2.3
Headway or Spacing

51
Definition
Headway
The time between successive vehicles passing a point.
(s/veh)

1
h=
q
Spacing
The distance between successive vehicles passing a point.

(m/veh)
1
S=
k

52
Headway (h) or Spacing
 Headway and spacing are microscopic
measures of flow as they apply to pairs of
vehicles in the traffic stream.
 These parameters are important in determining the
number of gaps in a traffic stream for vehicles or
pedestrians to cross and for measuring operations at
junctions.

Headway if measured in terms of time, or

Spacing if measured in terms of distance

Reference point
53
Example 2.3.1
What is the average headway of vehicles if the traffic
volume in a lane is 1800 veh/hr assuming there is no
m/cycle in the system? What is the average inter-vehicle
spacing if the average vehicle’s speed is 60 km/h?
Answer:

h = 1/q = 1 x 3600 sec/1800 = 2 sec.

How to compute Spacing? Headway = 2 sec. u = 60 km/h

u = 60 km/h Spacing = ?? meter

Reference point
S = 1/k to get k  [ k = q/u = 1800 veh/hr x 1/60 hr/km = 30 veh/km ]

= 1/30 [km/veh x 1000m/km]

= 33.3 m/veh 54
Example 2.2.2.1
Vehicles in a traffic stream moved at an average
headway of 2.2 sec. The average speed is 80 km/h.
Estimate the flow rate & density of that traffic stream.

Solution:
Using q = 1/h, then
q = 1/(2.2/3600) = 1636 veh/h.

Using q = uk, then k = q/u

 density of the flow, k = 1636/80 = 20.45 veh/km

Week 5 – 2nd Hour 55

 TOPIC 2.4
Traffic Capacity and
LOS Analysis for
Expressway and Two
Lane Rural Highways

56
Traffic Capacity Study
 Traffic capacity is the term used to describe
the ability of the roadway to accommodate
traffic.

 Capacity – Maximum hourly rate of number of

vehicles/persons which has reasonable
expectation of passing a point / uniform
section of a roadway during a given time
under prevailing road and traffic condition.

 Capacity of a freeway is the max sustained 15-

minutes rate of flow, in pc/hr/ln in one
direction.
57
Importance of Capacity Analysis
 To estimate maximum amount of traffic
that can be accommodated by a facility
while maintaining prescribed operational
qualities.
 To evaluate existing traffic conditions &
highway systems deficiencies
 To assess effects of proposed changes on
capacity & traffic condition.
 To compare alternative transportation
proposals.

58
Introduction to Expressway Facilities
 An expressway or freeway is defined as a
divided highway with full control of access
and two or more lanes for the exclusive use
of traffic in each direction.
 Provide uninterrupted flow.
flow No signalized
or stop-controlled at-grade intersection, and
direct access to and from adjacent property
is not permitted.
 Opposing directions of flow are continuously
separated by a raised barrier, an at-grade
median, or a continuous raised median.
59
Freeway Capacity Terms
 Freeway Capacity
- Max sustained 15-minutes rate of flow, in
pcph/hr/ln in one direction.

Free-flow Speed Terms

 Free-flow Speed (FFS)
- The mean speed of passengers cars that can be
accommodated under low to moderate flow rates
on a uniform freeway segment under prevailing
roadway and traffic condition

60
Factors Affecting FFS
i) Number of lane
- More number of lanes, more opportunity for
drivers to position themselves to avoid slower moving
vehicle.

61
Factors Affecting FFS (cont..)
ii) Interchange Density
- Closely space interchanges,
such as those in heavily
developed urban areas
operate at lower FFS that
suburban or rural freeways.

- Ideal average interchange

spacing over a reasonably
long section of freeway
(8-10km) is 3km or greater.
Minimum is 1 km.
62
Factors Affecting FFS
iii) Other factors:
factors

- Narrow lanes which will force drivers to travel

closer to one another laterally than they would desire.

- The design speed of the primary physical elements

of a freeway.

- If a freeway has significant horizontal or vertical

condition, the analyst is encouraged to determine the
FFS from field study or field observation.
63
LOS
 A term used to classify the varying conditions
of traffic flow that take place on highway.

 LOS range from the highest level ( a flow

where drivers are able to drive at their desired
speed with freedom to maneuver) to the lowest
level of service.

 A qualitative measure describing operational

conditions within traffic stream and their
perception by motorists/passengers.

64
LOS Classification
Where:- v=volume; c=capacity

(v/c =0.15)

(v/c =0.27)

(v/c =0.43)

(v/c =0.64)

(v/c =1.0)

65
Relationship of LOS with Speed and v/c Ratio

66
 Checking LOS for
Basic Freeway System

67
Procedure to Determine LOS

Step:-
1. Determine or calculate FFS from field
measurement or formula;
FFS = BFFS-fLW-fLC-fN-fID

2. Determine Flow Rate;

vp= V
[PHF x N x fHV x fp]

fHV= 1
[1 + PT(ET-1) + PR(ER-1)]
68
Procedure to Determine LOS (cont..)

3. Calculate Density;
D = Vp , D=density, Vp=flow rate, S=ave. car speed
S

4. Determine LOS;
Table@Exhibit 23-2
(HCM 2000)

69
1. Free Flow Speed (FFS) Adjustment

FFS = BFFS – fLW – fLC – fN - fID

Where

FSS = estimated free-flow speed

fLW = adjustment for lane width (Table 3)
fLC = adjustment for left-shoulder lateral clearance (Table 4)
fN = adjustment for number of lanes (Table 5)
fID = adjustment for interchange density (Table 6)
BFFS = Base free flow speed;
- 70mph or 110km/hr for urban,
- 75mph or 120 km/hr for rural

70
Table 3: Adjustment for Lane Width (flw)

71
Table 4: Adjustment for fLC

72
Table 5: Adjustment for fn

73
Table 6: Adjustment for fID

Week 6 – 1st Hour – 5 minute breaks! 74

2. Determine Flow Rate
vp= V
[PHF x N x fHV x fp]

Vp = 15 min passenger car equivalent flow rate

V = hourly peak vehicle volume in one direction
PHF = peak hour factor
N = number of travel lanes in one direction
fp = driver population factor
fHV = heavy vehicle adjustment factor

** Values for the driver population factor, f p, range from 0.85 to

1.0. In general, the value of 1.0 is used to reflect commuter
traffic.
fHV= 1
[1 + PT(ET-1) + PR(ER-1)]
75
2.1 Calculate fHV
fHV = 1
[1 + PT(ET-1) + PR(ER-1)]

ET, ER = Propotion Truck/Buses & Recreational Vehicle (Table 7 & 8)

PT, PR = proportion Truck/Buses & Recreational Car
fHV = heavy vehicle adjustment factor

TYPE OF TERRAIN
CATEGORY LEVEL ROLLING MOUNTAINOUS
ET (Trucks and
Buses 1.5 3.0 6.0
Combined)
ER (RVs) 1.2 2.0 4.0
76
2.1 Calculate fHV(cont..)
Table 7 : Determination of ET

77
2.1 Calculate fHV(cont..)
Table 8 : Determination of ER

78
2.1 Calculate fHV(cont..)

EXAMPLE:

Heavy Vehicle Adjustment Factor

A six lane freeway has a flow of 3500 vehicles. This flow

consists of 180 trucks per hour, 200 RVs per hour, 350
passenger buses per hour and the remainder of
passenger. Calculate the heavy vehicle adjustment
factor for a ½ mile section of this freeway that has a +4%
grade.

79
2.1 Calculate fHV(cont..)
Solution:
The percentage of trucks is 5% [(180/3500) x 100], buses is 10%
[(350/3500) x 100] and RVs is 6%. The heavy vehicle adjustment
factor is calculated using the following equation:

ET = passenger-car equivalents for trucks and/or buses = 1.5

(see applicable adjustment table)

ER = passenger-car equivalents for recreational vehicles = 2.0

(see applicable adjustment table)

PT,= proportion of trucks/buses in the traffic stream = 5 + 10 = 15%.

PR = proportion of RVs in the traffic stream = 6%

Therefore, fHV = 1
= 0.88
1 + 0.15 (1.5-1) + 0.06 (2-1)

80
2.2 Calculate PHF
PHF – The ratio of total hourly volume to the
maximum rate of flow within 1 hour.
PHF = V
4(v15)

V = Hourly volume
V15 = peak 15-min volume

Example : Assume 100, 150, 320, 50 vehicles are counted during

for 15min intervals. Calculate the PHF
Solution:
PHF = (100+150+320+50)
4(320)
= 0.48
81
2. Determine Flow Rate (cont..)
Example

A four-lane highway (two lanes in each direction) has a

2,500-vph peak-hour volume that includes mostly
commuter traffic, 5% trucks and 6% buses. The section
of highway that we are interested in is in rolling terrain. The
peak-hour factor has been determined by earlier studies to
be 0.95. What is the passenger-car equivalent (or service)
flow rate for this section of freeway?

82
2. Determine Flow Rate (cont..)
Solution
The equation for calculating the passenger-car equivalent flow
rate is:

V = peak hour volume (vph) = 2,500

PHF = peak-hour factor = 0.95
fHV = heavy-vehicle adjustment factor
=

(for ET and ER, use the small table for extended general freeway
segments) fp = driver population factor = 1.0 for commuter traffic
vp = 15-minute passenger-car equivalent flow rate (pcphpl)

pc/hr/ln

83
3. Calculate The Density
Vp
D
S

Vp = Flow rate passenger (pc/hr/ln)

S = Average passenger car speed (km/hr) FFS
D = Density (pc/km/ln)

84
4. Determine the LOS
Table 23-2 (HCM 2000)

85
Tutorial 1
Determine the free flow speed of urban freeway section if
BFFS = 70 mi/h. The data are as follows;

Number of lane = 3 (one direction)

Lane width = 11 ft
Lateral clearance = 3 ft (right side)
Interchange density = 1.5 per mile

86
Tutorial 2
Determine the LOS on a regular weekday on a 0.4
mile section of a six lane freeway with a grade of 2%,
using the following data;

Hourly volume = 3000 veh.hr

PHF = 0.85

Traffic composition:
Trucks = 12%
RVs = 2%
Lane width = 11 ft
Terrain = level
Base free flow speed = 70mi/h
Shoulder width = 6ft
Interchange spacing = 1 mile
Driver population adj factor, fp = 1.0
87
Tutorial 3
Determine the expected LOS for a section of a 4-lane
rural freeway (2 lanes in one direction) with 12 ft lane
& left shoulder lateral clearance of 3 ft.

The section has a 4% gradient of 0.8 mile long. Its to

accommodate 10% heavy truck & buses and 2% recreational
vehicles.

Based on the local studies, an adjustment factor for the driver

population, fp is 0.9 is indicated. The peak hour volume
(PHV) is 2230 vehicles per hour in the peak direction only and
the facility has 1 interchange per mile on average with a peak
hour factor (PHF) of 0.93.

Week 6 – 2nd Hour 88

REMINDER AGAIN & AGAIN!!!
• TEST 1 :
- Cover Chapter 1 & 2 (~2 QUESTION)
- Date: 16/11/11(wed)
- Time: 8.30pm-9.45pm (1 ¼ hrs)
- Exam Room (B1-A6-18/20 & B1-A7-20)

• TEST 2 :
- Cover Chapter 3 & 4 (~2 QUESTION)
- Date: 21/12/11(wed)
- Time: 8.30pm-9.45pm (1 ¼ hrs)
- Exam Room (B1-A6-18/20 & B1-A7-20) 89
HOW IS THE PROGRESS???
• CASE STUDY :
- By Group (4 person)

- TOPIC: Latest Issues of ECG504

- METHOD:
-> Video (presented by each person using
English communication/time duration:
between 10min – 15min)Example

-> Summary Report

- SUBMISSION: Within Week 12/13

90
 TOPIC 2.5
Traffic Control Device

91
Introduction
 Purpose is to convey message to road users.
 Objective: To establish a user-friendly street and
road system that is adequately and clearly
understood by all users thereof.
 May either contain instructions which the road user is
required to obey;
obey warning of hazards which may not be
evident; or information about routes, destinations and
points of interest or leisure.
 Road traffic control devices:-
1. Road Marking

2. Road Sign

3. Traffic Island

4. Traffic Signal
92
1. Road Marking
 Any kind of device or material that is used on a
road surface in order to convey official information.

 Are made of lines, pattern, words, symbols or reflector

on the pavement, kerb, side of island or on fixed
objects near the roadway.

 Purpose is to control or regulate the traffic.

 Markings are made using paints (light reflecting

paints) in contrast with color and brightness of the
pavement or background.
93
1. Road Marking (cont..)
Types of markings
 Pavement marking
- Center lines
- Lane line
- No passing zone
- Turn marking
- Stop lines
 Kerb marking
- Parking regulation

94
2. Road Sign
 Types Road Traffic Sign
i. Regulatory Signs (enforced by law)
- Mandatory-speed limit
- Prohibitory-no entry
ii. Warning Signs
iii. Informatory Signs

 Characteristics of Road Traffic Sign

- Shape
- Colour
- Symbol/Lettering

95
96
3. Traffic Island
 A median strip, a strip in the middle of a road.
road It can also be
a narrow strip between roads that intersect at an acute
angle.
 Types of traffic island based on function
i. Divisional island
eg. Median along highways
ii. Channelizing island
- Used to guide traffic into proper channels through
the intersection area
~ Reduce conflicts
~ Establish desired angles of crossing and diverging
~ Serve as convenient locations for other traffic control
devices
~ Refuge island for pedestrians
~ Useful when the direction of flow is to changed
97
Examples of Traffic
Island:-

98
4. Traffic Signal System
 A signaling device positioned at a road intersection,
pedestrian crossing, or other location.
 Its purpose is to indicate,
indicate using a series of colors
(Red - Amber - Green), the correct moment to stop, drive,
ride or walk, using a universal color code (and a precise
sequence, for those who are color blind.
 Type of traffic signal
i. Fixed time controlled traffic signal system:..
ii. Vehicle actuated traffic signal system:..
iii. Linked/coordinated traffic signal system;
- Simultaneous system
- Single alternate system
- Double alternate system
- Flexible system
iv. Area traffic signal system:..
99
 TOPIC 2.6
Intersection Control Design:–

1. UnSignalized &
2. Signalized

100
 1. Intersection Control
Design – UnSignalized
(Arahan Teknik Method)

101
Refer & Study from the Laboratory :

Junction Capacity Study

PART I:

Capacity and LOS of Unsignalised

Intersection

102
2. Intersection Control
Design – Signalized
(Webster Method)

103
Traffic Signal Control System

DEFINITION:

Traffic signal includes all mechanical – or

electrical – controlled devices used to
control,
control direct, or warn drivers or
pedestrians.

104
Objective and Function
 To provide right–of–way to vehicles on
each approach to increase traffic
handling performance.

 To provide efficient traffic movement and

safety.

 To reduce traffic conflict points, traffic

delay, etc.

105
Objective and Function (cont..)
 Conflict points at a junction are the points at which
there are possibilities of two or more vehicles will
collide if vehicles from opposing directions are
allowed to move simultaneously.

106
Advantage of Traffic Signal
 Provide for the progressive flow of a
platoon of traffic along a given route.

 Interrupt heavy traffic at intervals to allow

pedestrians and cross-street traffic to cross or
to enter the main street flow.

 Increase the traffic-handling ability of a junction.

 Reduce number of conflict point,

point i.e., to reduce
frequency of occurrence of certain types of accidents.
107
Disadvantage of Traffic Signal
The following results from improper design or
unwarranted signal installations may occur:

 Excessive delay for motorists and pedestrians,

particularly during off–peak periods.

 Increased accident frequency (i.e., rear-end-

collisions).

 Disregard of signal indications.

108
General Criteria for Selecting The Type of Junction
Total 2–way traffic on major road and highest volume on
Type of minor road (veh/h)
junction
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000

Stop–
controlled
Traffic
Signal
Interchange

MINI SMALL CONVENTIONAL

Roundabout

Week 7 – 1st Hour – 5 minute breaks! 109

Terminologies and
Definitions

110
1. Signal Aspect or Indications

RED :  STOP (DON’T GO)

AMBER :  (i) Drivers approaching the stop-line
must slow down and ready to stop
as the right-of-way is about to
end, and
(ii) Drivers who have already crossed
the stop-line must proceed and
clear the junction quickly.

GREEN :  Drivers have the right-of-way

GREEN : Proceed to follow the indicated direction
ARROW
111
2. Cycle Time, Co

A period for a complete

sequence of signal
indications (aspects), i.e.,
green followed with amber,
and followed with red period.
0 sec t1 t2 t = CO

A cycle time, CO

112
3. Traffic (Signal) Phases

The portion of a signal cycle time

allocated to any single combination of one or
more traffic movements simultaneously
receiving the right-of-way during one or
more intervals.
Phase Sequence:
A predetermined order in which the phases
of a cycle occur.

113
3. Traffic (Signal) Phases (cont..)
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3

Timing Diagram: I
0 sec. t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 t7 t8 CO
Phase 1 a R

Phase 2 a R

Phase 3 a R

114
 4. All Red Period, R
The part or parts of the signal cycle time during which
the signal indications do not change.
change This
short period of time is to ensure all vehicles/pedestrians
have cleared the junction before the next traffic phase
is given right-of-way
Timing Diagram:
I
0 sec. t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 t7 t8 CO
Phase 1 a R

Phase 2 a R

Phase 3 a R

One cycle time, CO 115

 5. Intergreen Period, I
A period of time from end of the green indication
of a phase to the beginning of green
indication for the next phase.
I=a+R
Timing Diagram:
I
0 sec. t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 t7 t8 CO
Phase 1 a R

Phase 2 a R

Phase 3 a R

One cycle time, CO

116
Elements To Consider
In The Design Of A
Traffic Signal Control
System

117
1. Selection of Traffic Phases
A minimum number of phases for any junction is = 2
But, it is important to consider the need to provide
separate phases for right–turning vehicles based on the
following criteria:

• Traffic volumes
• Traffic delays
• Accident records
• Geometry

118
General Guideline For Provision Of Separate
Right–turning Phases:
(a) Traffic Volume
i. Product of right–turning traffic volume and through volume
of the conflicting direction ≥ 50,000;
50,000 or
ii. Total right –turning traffic ≥ 100 veh/h during peak hour; or
iii. Number of right–turning vehicles left in queue ≥ 2 veh/cycle at
the end of green period.
(b) Traffic Delay
i. Average delay to the right–turning vehicles ≥ 35 sec/veh.
sec/veh

(c) Accidents involving right–turning vehicles

i. 4 or more accidents/year or 6 or more accidents for a period
of 2 years on one particular approach; or
ii. 6 or more accidents/year or 10 or more accidents for a period
of 2 years on both opposing approaches. 119
2. Saturation Flow, S
The maximum flow of vehicles passing the stopline
during green period.
Variation of vehicle flow rate passing the
stopline during a green period

Saturation flow, S
Flow rate, veh/sec

l sec. Lost time due to

late start, l sec. Lost time due to
early stop
Effective green period

120

0 sec. time
 QN = Observed or
expected traffic
flow in the given
movements (pcu/h)

SN = Saturation flow for

the given movement
(pcu/hr)

W = Width of the lane for

the movement (m)

IF W ≥ 5.5 METER THEN: S = 525*W PCU/H

IF W < 5.5 METER THEN: USED TABLE BELOW FOR S

W (meter) 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0

S (pcu/h) 1845 1885 1965 2210 2560 121
The actual saturation flow (S) of a particular movement
is governed by several factors:

• Percentage of right–turning traffic ( FR )

• Percentage of left–turning traffic ( FL )

• Turning radius ( FT )

• Gradient ( FG )

Therefore, S must be corrected to take account of the effects:

(i) Saturation flow for mixed movements lane:
S’ = S x FR x FL x FG pcu/h
(ii) Saturation flow for exclusive turning lane:
S’ = S x FT x FG pcu/h
FR, FL, FT, and FG can be obtained from the respective 122

Tables given.
From Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 13/87
3. Optimum Cycle Time, Co
1.5L + 5
CO = _____________ SECONDS

1–Y
Where:
n
Y   yi
n n
L   I  a    l and
i 1 i 1 i 1

L = Total lost time per cycle in seconds

I = Intergreen period in seconds
A = Amber period in seconds
l = Lost time due to starting delay, usually 2s
Yi = Demand/Saturation Flow Ratio = qi / si
124
4. Timing Setting
GN = gN + l + R

KN = gN + ln – an I

Phase N a R

l gN = yN (CO – L)/Y

Cycle time, CO

gN = Effective green period for phase N

GN = Actual green period for phase N
KN = Controller setting green period or the displayed green period
for phase N 125

l = Lost time due starting delay, usually 2s.

Example
Question:
Design a traffic signal system for an intersection in
which the traffic flow information is shown in the table
below and the turning action can be neglected. Show
the phase diagram and phase timeline.
Phase 1 Phase 2
From North South East West
To All All All All
Flow, q (pcu/hr) 1075 1338 587 1187
Saturated flow, s (pcu/hr) 3840 5760 2880 3200

Intergreen Period, I1=5s , I2=6s

Lost time, l = 2s
All Red, R1 = 2s , R2=3s
126
Amber, a = 3s
Example (cont..)
Solution:
Choose 2 phase diagram as the turning action can be
neglected.
Phase 1 Phase 2
From North South East West
To All All All All
Flow, q (pcu/hr) 1075 1338 587 1187
Saturated flow, s (pcu/hr) 3840 5760 2880 3200
Y= q/s 0.28 0.23 0.20 0.36
Ymax 0.28 0.36

From table above, Y= Σ(Ymax) = (0.28+0.36) = 0.64

Total lost time, L = Σ (I -a) + Σl
= {(5-3) + (6-3)} + (2+2) = 9s 127
Example (cont..)
Solution (cont..):
Optimum Cycle Time, C0 shall be 40s < Co< 120s
1.5L + 5
CO = _____________
seconds
1–Y
1.5(9) + 5
CO = _____________ seconds
1 – 0.64
Co = 51.4s , 120s….Okay! Calculated result
But, Co can be taken as 1.5 calculated result. To make the
calculation easier, take Co = 60s (51.4 < Co < (1.5x51.4)
Further calculation is based on Co = 60s
128
Example (cont..)
Solution (cont..):

Effective Green Period for each phase, gN = yN (CO – L)/Y

 Phase 1, g1 = 0.28 X (60-9)/ 0.64 = 22.3 ~ 22s
 Phase 2, g2 = 0.36 X (60-9)/ 0.64 = 28.7 ~ 29s

Displayed green period, kn = gi + li - ai

 Phase 1, k1 = 22 + 2 - 3 = 21s
 Phase 2, k2 = 29 + 2 – 3 = 28s

129
Example (cont..)
Solution (cont..):
Timing Diagram
Phase 1 Green (k1) a R1 Red k1

Phase 2 Red Green k 2 a R2 Red

21s 24s 26s 54s 57s 60s

One cycle time, Co = 60s

130

Week 7 – 2nd Hour