Chapter Four

Mobile Radio Propagation and Multiple

Access Techniques for Wireless
Communications
 Contents
Introduction to Radio Wave Propagation
Free Space Propagation Model
The Three Basic Propagation Mechanisms
Outdoor Propagation Models
Indoor Propagation Models
 Contents
Signal Penetration into Buildings
Ray Tracing and Site-Specific modeling
Frequency Division Multiple Access(FDMA)
Time Division Multiple Access(TDMA)
Space Division Multiple Access(SDMA)
 Introduction to Radio Wave Propagation
Radio wave propagation refers to the way radio waves travel from a transmitter to a
receiver.

Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic radiation used to transmit information.

The propagation of radio waves is influenced by the frequency of the wave, the
characteristics of the transmitting and receiving antennas, and the properties of the
medium through which the wave is traveling.
 Free Space Propagation Model
The free space propagation model is a simple model used to understand
the behavior of radio waves as they travel through free space.

It assumes that the radio waves are traveling through an ideal vacuum
with no obstacles or obstructions, and that the transmitting and receiving
antennas are perfectly aligned and have identical characteristics
 Free Space Propagation Model
The strength of the radio signal decreases as the distance between the transmitter and receiver
increases.

This relationship is described by the inverse square law, which states that the power density of the
radio signal decreases by a factor of four for every doubling of the distance between the
transmitter and receiver.

The received power at the receiver is affected by the power of the transmitter, the gains of the
antennas, the wavelength of the radio signal, and the distance between the transmitter and receiver.
Free Space Propagation Model
 Free Space Propagation Model
This equation shows that the received power decreases as the distance between the transmitter and
receiver increases, and is also affected by the power of the transmitter, the gains of the antennas, and the
wavelength of the radio signal.

While the free space propagation model is a useful tool for understanding the basic behavior of radio
waves in free space, it is a simplified model that does not take into account the various factors that can
affect radio wave propagation in real-world environments. These factors include obstacles, reflections,
diffraction, and absorption, as well as the effects of the atmosphere and other environmental conditions..
 The Three Basic Propagation
Mechanisms
Ground wave propagation - This is a type of radio wave propagation that occurs when radio waves travel along the
surface of the Earth. Ground wave propagation is most commonly used for low-frequency radio transmissions, such as
AM radio broadcasts.

Sky wave propagation - This is a type of radio wave propagation that occurs when radio waves are reflected off the
ionosphere and return to Earth. Sky wave propagation is most commonly used for medium and high-frequency radio
transmissions, such as shortwave radio broadcasts and amateur radio.

Line-of-sight propagation - This is a type of radio wave propagation that occurs when radio waves travel in a straight
line from the transmitter to the receiver. Line-of-sight propagation is most commonly used for high-frequency radio
transmissions, such as microwave links used for cellular communication and satellite communication.
 Outdoor propagation models
There are several outdoor propagation models used in wireless communication to predict the behavior
of radio waves as they travel through the atmosphere. Here are some of the most commonly used
models:
Free Space Path Loss (FSPL) Model - This is a simple model used to calculate the attenuation of radio
waves as they travel through free space. It assumes that there are no obstructions or reflections that
would cause the signal to weaken.
Two-Ray Ground Reflection Model - This model assumes that the radio wave signal reflects off the
ground, creating two paths for the signal to travel between the transmitter and receiver. This model is
commonly used in line-of-sight communication systems.
 Outdoor propagation models
Ray Tracing Model - This model uses computer simulations to trace the path of radio waves as they
reflect off buildings, trees, and other objects in the environment. It takes into account the effects of
diffraction, scattering, and absorption of radio waves.
Hata Model - This is a statistical model used to calculate the propagation loss in urban or suburban
environments. It takes into account the height of the transmitter and receiver antennas, the distance
between them, and the type of terrain and buildings in the area.
The Hata model, also known as the Hata–Okumura model, is a widely used empirical propagation
model for predicting the path loss of radio waves in outdoor environments
L = A + B * log10(d) + C * log10(f) - D * log10(hb)
where L is the path loss in decibels (dB), d is the distance between the transmitter and receiver in
kilometers, f is the frequency of the signal in megahertz (MHz),
 Outdoor propagation models
and hb is the height of the receiving antenna in meters above ground level. A, B,
C, and D are empirical constants that depend on the type of terrain and land use in
the surrounding area.
The Hata model is widely used in the design and planning of wireless
communication systems, particularly for mobile cellular networks. It provides a
reasonably accurate estimate of path loss for a wide range of frequencies and
distances in urban and suburban environments
 Outdoor propagation models
In general, simpler models like the Free Space Path Loss (FSPL) model and the
Two-Ray Ground Reflection Model may be less accurate in predicting real-world
signal strength compared to more sophisticated models like the Ray Tracing Model
and the Hata Model. This is because the simpler models do not take into account
the effects of obstacles and reflections that can cause the signal to weaken or
become distorted.
 indoor propagation models
Empirical Models - These models are based on measurements of signal strength and
attenuation in indoor environments. They use statistical analysis to identify the key factors
that affect signal strength, such as distance, frequency, and building materials.

Ray Tracing Models - These models use computer simulations to trace the path of radio
waves as they reflect off walls, floors, ceilings, and other objects in the indoor environment.
They take into account the effects of diffraction, scattering, and absorption of radio waves.
 indoor propagation models
Geometrical Optics Models - These models use geometric principles to predict the path of
radio waves in indoor environments. They assume that radio waves travel in straight lines
until they encounter a reflecting or refracting surface.

FDTD Models - Finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) models simulate the propagation of

electromagnetic waves in 3D space. They are computationally intensive but can provide
accurate predictions of the propagation of radio waves in complex indoor environments.
 indoor propagation models
Image-Based Models - These models use images of the indoor environment to predict the
propagation of radio waves. They use ray tracing techniques to simulate the path of radio
waves as they reflect off surfaces in the environment.
 indoor propagation models
Indoor propagation models are useful for designing and optimizing wireless communication
networks in indoor environments, such as offices, homes, and hospitals. They can be used to
predict the coverage and capacity of these networks, and to identify areas of poor coverage
or interference. The accuracy of indoor propagation models depends on the complexity of the
environment, the frequency of the radio wave, and the accuracy of the input parameters used
in the model. Validation of the model using actual measurements of signal strength in the
field is important to ensure their accuracy.
 Signal Penetration into Buildings
Radio signals can penetrate into buildings, but the extent of penetration depends on
several factors, including the frequency of the signal, the type of building material, and the
thickness and density of the walls.

Low-frequency signals, such as those used for AM radio, can penetrate buildings more
easily than high-frequency signals, such as those used for Wi-Fi or cellular communication.
This is because low-frequency signals have longer wavelengths, which allows them to bend
around obstacles and penetrate deeper into building materials.
 Signal Penetration into Buildings
Building materials also play a role in signal penetration. Materials such as wood, gypsum
board, and glass allow radio waves to penetrate more easily, while materials such as
concrete, metal, and brick can block or reflect radio waves, reducing signal strength.

The thickness and density of walls also affect signal penetration. Thicker walls and walls
with higher density materials, such as concrete, can attenuate radio signals more than thinner
walls or walls with lower density materials.
 Signal Penetration into Buildings
To improve signal penetration into buildings, wireless network designers may use
techniques such as installing additional access points or repeaters, optimizing the placement
of access points, using higher powered antennas, or using signal boosters or distributed
antenna systems (DAS) to amplify and distribute signals throughout the building.

Overall, signal penetration into buildings can be challenging, but there are various
techniques available to improve signal strength and coverage in indoor environments.
 Signal Penetration into Buildings
In outdoor environments, radio signals can propagate more easily because there are fewer
obstacles and the signal is not affected by building materials. However, outdoor
environments can be subject to interference from natural sources such as trees, hills, and
weather conditions.

In indoor environments, radio signals are subject to reflection, diffraction, and absorption
by building materials such as walls, ceilings, and floors. This can lead to weaker signal
strength and coverage, and signal blockage in certain areas. However, indoor environments
are generally more predictable and easier to model than outdoor environments.
 Ray Tracing and Site-Specific
modeling
Ray tracing and site-specific modeling are two techniques used to model signal propagation
in indoor environments.

Ray tracing is a technique that simulates the propagation of radio waves by tracing the paths
of individual rays as they reflect, refract, and diffract through the indoor environment. The
technique uses a set of algorithms to calculate the path of each ray and the amount of
reflection and diffraction that occurs as the ray travels through the environment. Ray tracing
is a powerful tool for predicting the behavior of radio waves in complex indoor
environments, and can be used to optimize the placement of wireless devices and antennas.
 Ray Tracing and Site-Specific
modeling
Site-specific modeling is a technique that uses a combination of measurements and
computer simulations to create a detailed model of the indoor environment. The technique
involves measuring the physical characteristics of the environment, such as the layout,
building materials, and obstructions, and using this information to create a 3D model of the
environment. The model is then used to simulate the propagation of radio waves and predict
signal strength and coverage in the indoor environment. Site-specific modeling is especially
useful for predicting signal propagation in unique or complex indoor environments, such as
hospitals, factories, or museums.
 Ray Tracing and Site-Specific modeling
Both ray tracing and site-specific modeling can be used to optimize the placement of
wireless devices and antennas in indoor environments. By accurately predicting signal
propagation and coverage, network designers can ensure that wireless communication
networks provide reliable and high-quality service to users.
 Multiple Access-Frequency Division
Multiple Access(FDMA)
FDMA is a useful channel access method for dividing a frequency band into multiple
channels, and it has played an important role in the development of cellular and satellite
communication systems. However, newer channel access methods such as TDMA and
CDMA are now more commonly used in modern wireless networks due to their higher
efficiency and greater flexibility.
 Multiple Access-Frequency Division
Multiple Access(FDMA)
One advantage of FDMA is that it allows multiple users to communicate simultaneously
without interfering with each other, as each user is assigned a separate frequency band.
However, FDMA can be less efficient than other channel access methods, such as Time
Division Multiple Access (TDMA) or Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA), as frequency
channels may remain unused if there are no active users assigned to them.
 Multiple Access-Time Division Multiple
Access(TDMA)
TDMA is a useful channel access method for dividing a frequency band into multiple time
slots, and it has played an important role in the development of digital cellular and satellite
communication systems. It offers efficient use of the frequency spectrum and allows multiple
users to share the same frequency channel, resulting in a higher capacity for the network.

TDMA is also used in some satellite systems, where the uplink and downlink transmissions
are separated by different time slots. Each user is allocated a specific uplink and downlink
time slot, and the system uses TDMA to separate the transmissions from different users.
 Multiple Access-Time Division Multiple
Access(TDMA)
One disadvantage of TDMA is that it requires strict synchronization between the transmitter
and receiver to ensure that each user transmits and receives data within the correct time slot.
This can be challenging in some environments, such as in mobile networks where users may
be moving between different cells.

TDMA is commonly used in digital cellular networks, where each user is allocated a time
slot for the duration of a call. The time slot is exclusively reserved for that user for the
duration of the call, and the time slot is released once the call is completed.
Multiple Access-Time Division Multiple
Access(TDMA)
 Multiple Access-Space Division
Multiple Access(SDMA)
SDMA is commonly used in wireless networks, where each user is assigned a specific spatial region for
the duration of their connection. The spatial region is exclusively reserved for that user for the duration
of the connection, and the region is released once the connection is completed.

One disadvantage of SDMA is that it requires the use of multiple antennas for both the transmitter and
receiver, which can increase the complexity and cost of the system. Additionally, the effectiveness of
SDMA depends on the ability to accurately identify and track the spatial regions assigned to each user,
which can be challenging in some environments.
 Multiple Access-Space Division
Multiple Access(SDMA)
SDMA can be implemented through techniques such as beamforming or spatial
filtering, which allow the transmitter and receiver to focus the signal in a specific
direction or spatial region. This helps to reduce interference and improve signal
quality within the assigned spatial regions.
 Multiple Access-Code Division Multiple
Access(CDMA)
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) is a channel access method used in
telecommunications networks to divide a frequency band into multiple codes, with
each code assigned to a different user or device. Each user is allocated a unique
code within the total available code set, and multiple users can transmit on the same
frequency band at the same time using different codes.
 Multiple Access-Code Division Multiple
Access(CDMA)
CDMA is commonly used in digital cellular networks, where each user is assigned
a specific code for the duration of a call. The code is exclusively reserved for that
user for the duration of the call, and the code is released once the call is completed.

CDMA is generally more efficient than other channel access methods, such as
FDMA or TDMA, in terms of capacity. This is because CDMA allows multiple
users to share the same frequency band and time slot by encoding each user's signal
with a unique spreading code.
Thank you