STATES OF MATTER

• The Four States of Matter

• Four States
• Solid
• Liquid
• Gas
• Plasma
 STATES OF MATTER
 Based upon particle arrangement
 Based upon energy of particles
 Based upon distance between particles
 Kinetic Theory of Matter
Matter is made up of particles which are in continual random
motion.
 STATES OF MATTER
SOLIDS
•Particles of solids are
tightly packed, vibrating
about a fixed position.

•Solids have a definite

shape and a definite
volume.
Heat
 STATES OF MATTER
LIQUID
 Particles of liquids are
tightly packed, but are
far enough apart to
slide over one another.

 Liquids have an
indefinite shape and a
definite volume.
Heat
 STATES OF MATTER
GAS
 Particles of gases are
very far apart and move
freely.

 Gases have an indefinite

shape and an indefinite
volume.
Heat
 PHASE CHANGES
Description of Term for Phase Heat Movement During
Phase Change Change Phase Change

Heat goes into

Solid to Melting the solid as it
liquid melts.
Heat leaves the
Liquid to
Freezing liquid as it
solid
freezes.
 PHASE CHANGES
Description of Term for Phase Heat Movement During
Phase Change Change Phase Change

Vaporization,
Liquid to which includes Heat goes into the
gas boiling and liquid as it vaporizes.
evaporation
Heat leaves the gas
Gas to liquid Condensation
as it condenses.
Heat goes into the
Solid to gas Sublimation
solid as it sublimates.
 But what happens if you raise the
temperature to super-high levels…
between
1000°C and 1,000,000,000°C ?

Will everything
just be a gas?
 STATES OF MATTER
PLASMA
 A plasma is an
ionized gas.
 A plasma is a very
good conductor of
electricity and is
affected by
magnetic fields.
 Plasmas, like gases •
Plasma is the
have an indefinite
shape and an common state
indefinite volume. of matter
 STATES OF MATTER

SOLID LIQUID GAS PLASMA

Tightly packed, in Close together Well separated Has no definite

a regular pattern with no regular with no regular volume or shape
Vibrate, but do not arrangement. arrangement. and is composed
move from place Vibrate, move Vibrate and move of electrical
to place about, and slide freely at high charged particles
past each other speeds
Some places where plasmas are found…

1. Flames
2. Lightning
3. Aurora (Northern Lights)
The Sun is an example of a star in its
plasma state
• A substance is a type of matter that has the same
properties and the same composition throughout a
sample.
• A chemical change, on the other hand, results in a
conversion from the original substance.
• When a chemical change occurs new substance(s) are
formed through a reorganization of the atoms.
• Substances can combine to produce compounds, a pure
substance that can be decomposed into 2 or more
different substances,
• or mixtures which can be separated by a physical change
into 2 or more substances which are not chemically
combined.
Pure Substance Mixtures
HETEROGENOUS HOMOGENOUS
ELEMENTS COMPOUNDS MIXTURES MIXTURES

Elements are the Compounds are All components of Homogeneous

simplest pure pure substances the mixture are mixtures
substances. that are made of visible because they Components cannot
Examples: more than one do not mix together be distinguished
• O-Oxygen element bound Particles not from each other,
• H- Hydrogen together. distributed evenly appear as one
• Na- Sodium Examples: substance
• C- Carbon • H2O and CO2 EX: sand and water Particles distributed
• Fe- Iron vegetable soup evenly throughout
• Pb- Lead A molecule is oil and water
The smallest formed when two EX: air, salt water,
particle of an or more atoms 10 karat gold
element that has chemically
the properties of combine. *SOLUTIONS
that element is an
atom.
 2 types of mixtures
Heterogeneous mixtures Homogeneous mixtures
• All components of  Components cannot be
distinguished from
the mixture are each other, appear as
visible because one substance
they do not mix  Particles distributed
evenly throughout
together
• Particles not EX: air, salt water, 10
distributed evenly karat gold

EX: trail mix,

vegetable soup,
oil and water
 Extras:
• Homogeneous mixtures are also called
solutions.
• Separate particles are not visible because one
dissolves in the other = dissolution
• In salt water,
Smaller quantity
– salt is the solute, gets dissolved
– water is the solvent, dissolves
other substance Larger quantity
 2 types of mixtures
Q. Why do some substances dissolve and
others do not?
A. In a solute, each particle is attracted to
each other to form a grain of it. When the
solute is placed in a water, new attractive
forces are present. If the attractive forces
between the water and the solute are
stronger than those holding the solute
together, then the solute will break down
and get dissolved in the water.
 SOLUBILITY
• Because different amounts of
solute can be dissolved in a
solvent, we look at a solution’s
SOLUBILITY.
• Definition: The maximum
amount of solute that can be
dissolved in a given amount of
solvent at a specific
temperature.
• Usually expressed as the
number of grams of solute per
100mL of solvent.
 SOLUBILITY
• Every chemical substance which dissolves
in water has a fixed solubility.
– If it does not dissolve, solubility = zero.

• Many of these solublities

have been measured and
special charts are produced
displaying solubility of
many substances at once.
 Solution terminology:
o Saturated:
Maximum amount of solute
dissolved in solvent
o Unsaturated:
Less than maximum amount of
solute dissolved in solvent
o Supersaturated:
More than maximum amount of
solute dissolved in solvent
o Dilute:
to make less concentrated
 Separation of Mixtures
1. Sedimentation: occurs
naturally when solid
substances that are heavier
than their solvent deposit at
the bottom of the mixture.
EX: Water treatment
2. Decantation: a
heterogeneous mixture that
has distinct layers can be
separated by slowly pouring
one of the layers into another
container.
EX: Separating cream from
milk
3. Filtration: separates parts of
a heterogeneous mixture by
pouring it though a filter, the
larger particles (residue) will be
held in the filter while the smaller
ones (filtrate) will pass through.
EX: Brita
4. Distillation: used to separate
components of a homogeneous
mixture based on their different
boiling points. Solution is heated
and substance with lower boiling
points evaporates and passes
through a tube where it cools and
turns back to water in another
container.
Atomic Structure
I. Historical Information
a) Democritus: Greek philosopher; conceptualized the idea of the atom;
atomos means indivisible.
b) Dalton (1803) : SOLID (HARD) SPHERE MODEL - developed an
early model of the atom; he described the atom as being a solid, indivisible
particle.
Dalton's Atomic Theory

1) All elements are composed of atoms, which are indivisible and

indestructible particles (Lavoisier).

2) All atoms of the same element are exactly alike; in particular, they
all have the same mass (Proust).

3) All atoms of different elements are different; in particular, they have

different masses (Proust).

4) Compounds are formed by the joining of atoms of two or more

elements. In any compound , the atoms of the different elements in the
compound are joined in a definite whole-number ratio, such as 1 to 1, 2 to
1, 3 to 2, etc.
• Dalton’s theory can be used to explain the law of conservations of
mass (LCM) and the law of constant composition (LCC).

• LCM – there is no change in mass during an ordinary chemical

reaction. With atomic theory: the mass is conserved because the
same number of atoms of each kind is present before and after a
reaction.

• LCC – a chemical compound always contains the same elements in the

same proportions by mass. With the atomic theory: atoms of different
elements always combine in the same ratio in a compound.
• It was later determined that atoms are composed of electrons,
protons and neutrons.
• The numbers of which, in most instances, are unique to a specific
element – given a name represented by an atomic symbol usually
Latin, eg. Fe (iron).
• It was observed in the late 19th century, 1896 and 1898, by Henri
Becquerel and the Curies that certain atoms exhibited some levels of
radioactivity.
• Several experiments were carried out by different researchers and led
to the discovery of sub-particles within the atom.
c) Joseph John Thomson (1897)- Plum Pudding Model -

• proposed that the atom was a sphere of positive electricity

(which was diffuse) with negative particles imbedded throughout
after discovering the electron, a discovery for which he was
awarded the Nobel Prize in physics in 1906.
• Under the premise that for electrically charged particles, like
charges repel and opposite charges attract each other. J.J.
Thompson suggested the existence of negatively charged
subatomic particles called electrons after carrying out an
experiment using cathode rays.
 • Thomson used cathode ray tubes to characterize electrons.

• The rays are made up of

electrons: very small,
negatively charged particles
that are indeed fundamental
parts of every atom.

http://www.chem.uiuc.edu/clcwebsite/video/Cath.mov
 d) Rutherford (1909): Solar (Planetary) System Model -
performed a set of experiments with alpha particles and gold foil.
He discovered that atoms mostly consist of empty space and
have a small, dense, positively charged center (nucleus).

Figure 1: Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment

• Radioactive material releases
alpha particles (a-particles)
which have a net positive
charge.

• The alpha particles were

directed at a thin sheet of
gold foil.

• Most of the alpha particles

passed directly through the
foil.

• Some of the alpha particles were deflected by the gold foil.

http://www.mhhe.com/physsci/chemistry/essentialchemistry/flash/ruther14.swf
 Results of Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment

• Rutherford concluded that:

1. Since most of the positively charged alpha particles passed

directly through the foil, most of the atom consists of empty
space.

2. Since some of the positively charged alpha particles were

deflected by the foil, the gold atom must consist of a small,
dense, positively charged center that is called the nucleus.
FIGURE 2: Enlarged cross-section of the gold foil in the
apparatus, showing the deflection of alpha particles by the nuclei
of the gold atoms.
 Proton
• Protons were discovered after experiments, aimed at
obtaining positively charged ions, determined positive
particles with mass to charge ratio dependent on the
element used.
• Each element has the same number of electrons and
protons and so is neutral.
• The concept of a nucleus, the tiny central core of an atom
containing both protons, was put forward by Ernest
Rutherford in 1910 and 1911 who noticed that hitting a
sheet of gold foil with positive alpha rays – like repels like
– that though most passed through unaffected a small
amount were deflected.
• It was determined that protons were contained within a
central core and only when the alpha rays hit this nucleus
were they repelled by the positively charged protons.
Rutherford calculated that though the protons were found
in the nucleus, the electrons occupied vast spaces
surrounding it in what are called shells.
Rutherford’s model of the atom
 Neutron

• It is expected that because a neutral atom has the same

number of protons and electrons that the nucleus would
have an equal mass to the mass of the protons, this is not
the case.
• The much greater mass of the nucleus indicates the
presence of yet another subatomic particle, the neutron,
which is electrically neutral.
• These were discovered by James Chadwick in 1932. A
sample of Beryllium was bombarded with alpha particles
(another type of naturally occurring radiation which are
technically just ionized helium nuclei), which causes it to
emit this mysterious radiation.
• It was then discovered by Irene Joliot-Curie (daughter of
Marie and Pierre Curie) and her husband Frederic Joliot-
Curie that this radiation, upon striking a proton-rich
surface (paraffin was the preferred example), would
discharge some of the protons, which could then be
detected using a Geiger counter (a device that measures
radiation).
• Chadwick determined that the mysterious radiation in
question was neutral due to the fact that it was not
affected by proximity to a magnetic field, and, unlike
standard gamma radiation, did not invoke the
photoelectric effect (when photons, such as gamma rays,
strike certain surfaces, they discharge electrons, which
can be simply measured), but rather discharged protons,
which meant that the particles had to be more massive
than previously expected.
Chadwick’s model of the atom
 e) Niels Bohr (1913): Electron-shell Model - described the position
of negatively charged electrons in relation to the nucleus as a
function of their energy.
• Bohr stated that electrons are found in areas surrounding
the nucleus called principal energy levels.

• The electrons in energy levels that are close to the nucleus

of the atom have little free energy while those further from
the nucleus have greater free energy.

• Lower level electrons can

“jump” to higher levels by
gaining energy. These are called
“excited” electrons.

• “Excited” electrons will return

to their original level (ground
state) while giving off energy.

Figure 2: The Bohr Model of the atom

f) The Electron Cloud Model (wave-mechanical or
quantum-mechanical model)
• An atom consists of a dense nucleus composed of protons and neutrons
surrounded by electrons that exist in different clouds at the various energy
levels. REGION OF PROBABILITY

• Erwin Schrodinger and Werner Heisenburg developed probability

functions to determine the regions or clouds in which electrons would most
likely be found.
II. Subatomic Particles

a) Nucleons: subatomic particles that are located in an atom’s nucleus;

includes protons and neutrons.

• Proton: positively charged; has a mass of 1 amu.

• Neutron: no charge; has a mass of 1 amu.

b) Electrons: small, negatively charged subatomic particles that revolve

around the atom’s nucleus at extremely high velocities.

• Electrons are located in energy levels around the nucleus.

• Electrons have a mass of 1/1836 amu.

Note: Atomic Mass Unit = amu or m

 KEY:
P+ = proton
N = neutron
e- = electron

Figure 3: Diagram of Structure of a Carbon Atom From :

http://www.spacesciencegroup.org/lessons/graphics/partsoftheatom.jpg
• It was determined, through experimentation, that:
• 1. Atoms consist of electrons, protons and neutrons.
• 2. Electrons and protons are present in equal numbers for each
neutral element – atomic number.
• 3. The electrons are located in a large space surrounding a very
compact nucleus comprised of protons and neutrons.
• 4. The sum of protons and neutrons is called the mass number.
• The mass and atomic numbers for each element are generally
found on a periodic table.