Electronic Instrumentation

and Control

By: Dr. Ankita Malhotra

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
Unit 1:
PRINCIPAL OF MEASUREMENT, TESTING AND MEASURING
INSRUMENTS

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
Measurement
The measurement of a given quantity is essentially an act or the result of
comparison between the quantity (whose magnitude is unknown) and a
predefined standard. Since two quantities are compared, the result is
expressed in numerical values.

In order that the results of the measurement are meaningful, there are two
basic requirements :

(i) The standard used for comparison purposes must be accurately defined
and should be commonly accepted, ·
And
(ii)The apparatus used and the method adopted must be provable

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
Significance of measurement-
 Tovalidate and understand the new hypothesis, phenomenon
and relations between them

 To
pave the way for new discoveries backed by earlier
measurements.

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
 Methods of measurement
• In these methods, the unknown quantity (also

Direct called the measurand) is directly compared against

a standard.
Methods • Direct methods are used to measure physical
quantities like length, mass and time.

• Used when using direct methods is not feasible.

Also they are less accurate (dependent on human
Indirect factors)
• Electronic measurements are based on indirect
Methods methods where transducer converts the physical
quantity to be measured in an analogous
form(electrical form) and then measured.
Dr. Ankita Malhotra
SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
Generalized Measurement System

Fig: Block diagram of generalized measurement system

*Data/signal conditioning includes :

A/D converter, amplifiers, filters, modulators, attenuators and processes like
addition, subtraction, integration, differentiation etc.
*Data presentation element includes:
analog/digital display, recorders, storage devices, processors, printers etc.

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
Performance Characteristics of
Measuring Systems/Instruments
 Measurement involves using an instrument as a physical means of
determining a quantity or variable. In simple cases, an instrument consists
of a single unit which gives an output signal according to the unknown
variable applied to it.
 The knowledge of performance characteristics of an instrument/measuring
device is essential for minimizing the errors and to select the most suitable
instrument for specific measurements.
 It can be divided into two distinct categories

Static characteristics

Dynamic Characteristics

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
Static Characteristics of
Instruments
1. Accuracy: It is the closeness with which an instrument
reading approaches the true value of the quantity being
measured.
i) Point accuracy,
ii) Accuracy as percentage of scale range,
iii) Accuracy as percentage of true value.

2. Precision : It is a measure of the· reproducibility of the

measurement, that is given a fixed value of variable. Precision
is a measure of the degree to which successive measurements
differ from each other.
Dr. Ankita Malhotra
SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
3. Linearity : The characteristic of the instrument which defines
that the output is linearly proportional to the input. This is the most
desirable characteristic of an instrument because the conversion
from a linear scale reading to the corresponding measured value of
input quantity is most convenient if one merely has to multiply by a
fixed constant rather than consult a non-linear calibration curve or
compute from non-linear calibration equations. Also when the
instrument is part of a large data or complex system, linear behavior
of the part often simplifies the design and analysis of the whole
system.

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
 4.Sensitivity: Sensitivity of an instrument or an instrumentation
system is the ratio of the magnitude of the output signal/response to
the magnitude of input. signal /quantity being measured.
It is the ratio of change in output of an instrument to the change in
input.
 Sensitivity=

 Inverse sensitivity (deflection factor)=

Fig : sensitivity of an instrument

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
5- Hysteresis: Hysteresis is a phenomenon which depicts different
output effects while loading and unloading.
Hysteresis takes place due to the fact, that all the energy put into
the stressed parts when loading is not recoverable while unloading.
When the input of an instrument is varied from zero to its full scale
and then if the input is decreased from its full scale value to zero,
the output varies.

Fig: Hysteresis effects

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
 Threshold: Threshold is the smallest
measurable input, below which no output
change can be identified.
 Dead Time: It is the time required for the
instrument to respond to the change in output.
For a certain range of inputs, the output value
does not change. Dead time is the time before
which the instrument starts to respond after the
output has been changed.
 Dead Zone: It is the largest change of input
quantity for which there is no output.
 Resolution:
It is the smallest change in the measured value to which the instrument will
respond. It is smallest increment in the input value that can be detected by
the instrument. Thus, resolution defines the smallest measurable input
change while threshold defined the smallest measurable input.

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
Dynamic Characteristics
Many measurements are concerned with rapidly varying quantities and
therefore, for such cases we must examine the dynamic relations which exist
between the output and input. This is normally done with the help of
differential equations. Performance criteria based upon dynamic relations
constitute the dynamic characteristics.

 Dynamic Response Transient and Steady-state response

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
Dynamic response cntd.

When an input is applied to an instrument or a measurement

system, the instrument or the system cannot take up its final steady
state position immediately. On the other hand, the system go
through a transient state before it finally settles to its final 'steady
state’ position.

Some measurements are made under conditions that sufficient time

is available for the instrument or the measurement system to settle
to its final steady state conditions. Under such conditions the study
of behavior of the system under transient state, called 'transient
response' is not of much of importance ; only steady state response
of the system need be considered.

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
 Invariably measurement systems are subjected to inputs which are
not static but dynamic in nature. i.e. the inputs vary with time
 Since the input varies from instant to instant, so does the output.
The behavior of the system under such conditions is described by
the dynamic response of the system.
 The variations in the input, that are used practically to achieve
dynamic behavior are :
i)Step input, ii) Ramp input ,iii) Parabolic input iv)Sinusoidal input:

 *Note: The systems exhibit a characteristic sluggishness on account of

presence of energy storage elements like capacitance, inductance etc.

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
Dynamic Characteristics
 The dynamic characteristics of any measurement system are :
(i) Speed of response (ii) Lag
(iii) Fidelity (iv) Dynamic error

 Speed of Response. It is the rapidity with which an instrument responds to

changes in the measured quantity. Response Time is defined as the time required
by instrument or system to settle to its final steady position after the application of
the input.

 Lag: Measuring lag is defined as the delay in the response of an instrument

to a change in the measured quantity.
 The lags are of two types :
1. Retardation lag : As soon as there is a change in the measured
quantity, the measurement system begins to respond.
2. Time delay : The response of the measurement system starts after a
dead time, once the input is applied. They cause dynamic error.
Dr. Ankita Malhotra
SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
 Fidelity:Fidelity of a system is defined as the ability of the
system to reproduce the output in the same form as the input.

 Dynamic Error. It is the difference between , the true value of

the quantity changing with time and the value indicated by the
instrument if no static error is assumed. However, the total
dynamic error of the instrument is the combination of its
fidelity and the time lag or phase difference between input and
output of the system.

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
 Calibration
 To ensure proper functioning of closed loop feedback systems, calibration
is one of the essential requirements.
 Calibration is a condition and also a process.
 Calibration is the condition of an electronic instrument when its
output or response is as close as possible to the specified value.
 Calibration is a process of examination. To calibrate an instrument
means to determine how close to the true value its indication or
output really is. This process also includes the correction and/or
documentation of degree of error.

The signals produced by various instruments may be altered and create

undesirable results due to wearing or aging of components. These
instruments are designed so that adjustments can be made to
compensate for the deterioration of their internal components. The
process of making these adjustments is called 'calibration'.
Dr. Ankita Malhotra
SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
Need of calibration
 The value of internal· electronic components of the instruments
changes as well as its mechanical parts wear. This results in
malfunctioning of the instruments. Calibration is required to
overcome this problem.
 Calibration procedures are performed for other reasons, such as :
◦ Before new installation
◦ After repair
◦ After extended shut down
◦ After product repair

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
Types of calibration
 Three-point calibration: The measurements are made at three
points and compared with the defined standards. The three points
chosen are:
Starting point, end point and centre point of the measurement scale.
Disadvantage: cannot accurately calibrate the instrument
over the entire scale, as it cannot ensure proper linear response of
the system.

 Five-point calibration: Measurements are made at Test point

values of 10,30, 50, 70 and 90 percent of the instruments input
ranges. It is more accurate.

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
Errors
The error of an instrument is the algebraic difference between the
observed value and the true value of the quantity being measured.
 Error may be expressed either as absolute or as percentage of error.

TYPES OF ERRORS:
 Gross errors :human errors
 Systematic errors: Fixed errors due to components
 Schematic errors : Static and Dynamic
Static errors due to limitations of instrument
Dynamic errors due to delay in instrument’s response
 Random errors: Due to unknown causes. These errors differ in
values when repeated measurements of the same variable is made.

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
Limiting Errors
 The accuracy of an instrument, we know is specified by the
manufacturer within a certain percentage of the full scale reading.
The components for e.g. resistor, capacitor, inductor are guaranteed
to be within some percentage of their rated value. This percentage
shows the deviation of that quantity from its specified value. This
deviation from the specified value is called as limiting error.
 These errors are also called as guarantee errors.
 For e.g. : if the value of a capacitor specified by the manufacture is
4.7 μF with a tolerance of ± 5% then the actual value of capacitance
is guaranteed to be within these limits.

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
Measurement of resistance
 Low resistance: All resistance, of the order of 1 ohm and below
are classified as low resistance. In practice such resistance, are·
present in armature and series windings of large machines,
ammeter shunts, cable lengths, contacts etc.
 Medium resistance :This class includes resistances from about 1
ohm upwards to about 1,00,000 ohms. The majority of electrical
apparatus have resistance in this range.
 High resistance: The resistances of the order of 1,00,000 ohm and
above are classified as high resistance. The following methods are
explained in this section for measurement of low, medium and
high resistances.
a) Ohmmeter b) Wheatstone's bridge
c)Kelvin's double bridge d)Megger
Dr. Ankita Malhotra
SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
Kelvin’s Double bridge
This method is one of the best
available method for the precise
measurement of low resistance.
It is known as double bridge as
it incorporates two sets of ratio
arms. One set of ratio arms is
composed R1,R2 and the other
set is composed of Ra, Rb.
Rx is the resistor to be
measured· and R is adjustable
resistor having very small
tolerance.
The ratio R1/R2 is kept same Ra/Rb

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
 For zero deflection of galvanometer

Ry is resistance of connecting lead between points m and n.

Substituting value of E:
E

Similarly: k
k

But p
o
l I1
I2
m n I

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
Dr. Ankita Malhotra
SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
The known resistance R3 is adjusted such that galvanometer indicates
zero and then using above equation Rx can be calculated.

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
Advantages of Kelvin’s bridge
 In a typical Kelvin's double bridge the range of resistance covered
is lΩto 10μΩ with an accuracy of± 0.05% to± 0.2%.

 Theresistance of the connecting lead R, has no effect on

measurement

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
 Wheatstone’s Bridge
 This is the best and commonest method of measuring medium
resistance.

The galvanometer is a sensitive micro ammeter with a zero centre scale.

When there is no current through the meter, the galvanometer pointer rests
at 0, i.e. mid scale. Current in one direction causes the pointer to deflect on
one side and current in the opposite direction deflects it to the other side.

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
 The resistors R1 R2 and R3 are known and Rx is unknown resistor
to be measured.
 The bridge is balanced when there is no current through
galvanometer or when the potential at points C and D are equal i.e.
the potential across galvanometer is zero.
 When bridge is balanced:

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
 For measurement of unknown resistor Rx, R3 is adjusted such that
bridge is balanced and galvanometer current is zero. Then using
above equation, the unknown resistor Rx is calculated.
R3 is precision resistor having very small tolerance.

 When the bridge is in unbalanced condition, current flows through

the galvanometer, causing deflection of its pointer.

To determine current flowing through galvanometer when bridge is

unbalanced, Thevenin' s theorem can be used.

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
Thevenin’s equivalent to find current
flowing through Galvanometer

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
If Rg is the internal resistance of
galvanometer, then Ig is given by:

Thevenin's equivalent circuit for

unbalanced Wheatstone's bridge

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
Mega ohm Bridge
 This method is used for measuring high resistance above 50MΩ
 It is called as mega ohmmeter
 Megger is a portable ohmmeter with built-in high voltage source.

Working Principle of Ohmmeter

The instrument is connected with a
battery, a series adjustable resistor and an
instrument which gives the reading. The
resistance to be measured is connected at
terminal ab. When the circuit is
completed by connecting output
resistance, the circuit current flows and so
the deflection is measured.

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
D’arsonval Movement
 This type of instruments consists of a
permanent magnet and a coil which
carries current and is placed in between
them.
 Due to high intensity magnetic fields the
deflecting torque produced is of large
value due to which sensitivity of the meter
is also increased.
 If the direction of current is reversed in
these types of instruments, then torque
direction will also be reversed so these
types of instruments are applicable in DC
measurements only. The deflecting torque
is directly proportional to the deflection
angle hence these types of instruments
have the linear scale.
Dr. Ankita Malhotra
SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
 There are many advantages due to which we use D’Arsonval type
instrument. They are-

 They have uniform scale.

 Effective eddy current damping.
 Low power consumption.
 No hysteresis loss.
 They are not affected by stray fields.

However they suffer from drawbacks such as-

 It cannot be used with AC signal.
 Costlier compared to MI instruments.
 There may be error due to ageing of springs by which we may not
get accurate result.
Dr. Ankita Malhotra
SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
Basic types of ohmmeter

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
 Mega ohmmeter (Megger)

Megger is essentially a portable ohmmeter with built-in high voltage source.

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
 It mainly has two elements, a magnet type dc generator to supply
current for making measurement and an ohmmeter which measures
the resistance value.

 The meter used differs slightly from the standard D' Arsonoval
movement. It has two windings.

 Coil A is the current coil with one terminal connected to negative

output and other connected in series with R1 to the test lead P2• It is
wound in such a way that it moves the pointer towards the zero end of
the scale when current flows through it from generator.

 Coil B is the voltage coil and is connected across the generator output
through resistance R. This coil is wound such that the pointer moves
towards the high resistance end of the scale when current flows
through it from generator.
Dr. Ankita Malhotra
SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
 The two coils are mounted on the same shaft but at right angles to each
other.

 The unknown resistance Rx is connected between test leads P1 and P2.

 Ifthe test leads are left open, no current flows in coil A and coil B alone
moves the pointer as current flows through it. Coil B moves a pointer
such that it indicates infinity or open.

 When the unknown resistor Rx is connected across P 1 and. P 2, current

flows from the generator· though coil A, resistors R1 and. Rx· The
corresponding torque developed moves the pointer away from the infinity
position, into a field of gradually increasing strength, until the torque
fields between coils A and B are equal.

 The value of R1 is so chosen that even if the line terminals are a short
circuited, coil A does not get damaged.
Dr. Ankita Malhotra
SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
Measurement of inductance

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
Maxwell’s Inductance Bridge
 This bridge circuit measures an inductance by comparison with a
variable standard self inductance.

The condition for balance of bridge

require that there should be no current
through the detector. This requires,
that the potential difference between
points b and d should be
zero i.e. E1 = E3.

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
In the circuit:

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
 Comparing real and imaginary part:

 Note– To measure unknown Lx; R2 and L2 are adjusted to keep the

bridge balanced

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
Maxwell's Inductance-
Capacitance Bridge
 It measures unknown inductance in terms of known capacitance

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
 When bridge is balanced

 Equating real and imaginary parts:

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
 Thus the measurement of unknown inductance is independent of the
excitation frequency. The scale of the resistance can be calibrated to read
inductance directly.

 Quality factor (Q) for inductance is,

 For high values of Q, R 1 becomes excessively large and it is impractical to

obtain a satisfactory variable standard resistance in the range. Therefore
Maxwell's bridge is suitable for measurement of inductance with low Q
values.

 For measurement of inductance,. unknown inductor is connected in one of the

arms and resistor R1 and capacitor C1 are adjusted to balance the bridge.
Dr. Ankita Malhotra
SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
Advantages of Maxwell’s bridge
 The equation for Rx and Lx are independent.
 The measurement is independent of frequency.
 The bridge yields simple expression for inductance Lx and
resistance Rx·
 It is very useful for measurement of a wide range . of inductance at
power and audio frequencies.
 It can measure inductance from 1 H to 1000 H with-± 2 % error.

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
Disadvantages of Maxwell’s
bridge
 This bridge requires a variable standard capacitor which may be
expensive if calibrated to a high degree of accuracy.
 The bridge is limited to measurement of low Q vaIues {1 < Q. <
10). The measurement of high Q coils demand a large value for
resistance R1.
 The Maxwell's bride is also unsuited for coils with very low Q
values i.e. Q < 1.

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
Hay's Bridge
 Thismethod of measurement is particularly suited for the
measurement of inductance having high Q Values

Hay's bridge differs

from Maxwell's bridge
by having a resistance
R1 in series with a
capacitor C1 instead of
being parallel

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
 When bridge is balanced,

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
 Equating real and imaginary parts:

1)

2)

 Putting the value of Lx from equation 2) in equation 1), we get:

3)

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
 Putting the value of Rx from equation 3) to equation 2)

4)
 As ω appears in the expression for Lx, this bridge is frequency
sensitive.
 Quality factor (Q) for capacitor is

 Substituting in equation 4):

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
 For Q>10,1/Q2 can be neglected, thus:

(Similar to Maxwell's bridge)

For Q less than 10, the 1/Q2 term can not be neglected. Hence this
bridge is not suited for measurement of inductors having Q less than 10.

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
 Advantages :

 (1) It can measure inductances with high Q i.e. Q > 10.

 (2) A commercial bridge measures inductance from 1 J1H to 100 H with±
2% error.
 (3) It can be used for measuring incremental inductance.

 Disadvantages·:

 (1)The unknown value of inductance depends on loss of inductor(Q) and

also on operating frequency.

 (2)It can not measure inductance with low Q i.e. Q < 10

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
Measurement of Capacitance

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
Schering's Bridge
 It measures capacitances and their
insulating properties precisely.
 This bridge is widely used for testing
small capacitors at low voltage with very
high precision. V
 The standard capacitor c3 is a high
quality mica capacitor with low loss for
general measurements or an air capacitor
having a very stable value and a very
small electric field for insulation-
measurement.
 For measuring unknown capacitor, it is connected to one of the arms
of the bridge and C1 and R2 are adjusted to obtain bridge balance.

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
 When bridge is balance,

Thus

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
 Comparing real and imaginary parts:

Thus, once bridge is balanced, unknown capacitance can be calculated

using above equation
The dissipation factor D, which is inverse of quality factor of a series
RC circuit is given by

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
Advantages
 Commercial bridge measure from 100 pf -1 μF with± 2% accuracy.

 The direct reading for Cx can be obtained by graduating C3

accordingly, if resistance ratio is maintained at a fixed value.

 It can measure small capacitors at low voltage precisely.

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
 UNIT -2

SENSORS and TRANSDUCERS

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
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Transducers and their
characteristics
 Transducer: A device which converts one form of energy into the
other form.
Characteristics of Transducers:
 Ruggedness : It is the· ability of a transducer to withstand
overloads. A good transducer must have a high degree of
ruggedness.
 Linearity : It is the ability of transducer to reproduce input-output
characteristics symmetrically and linearly. Overall linearity is the
main factor considered.
 Repeatability : It is. the· ability of a transducer to reproduce the
output signal exactly when the same input is applied repeatedly
under the same environmental conditions.
Dr. Ankita Malhotra
SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
 Accuracy : It is defined as closeness of the actual output produced
by a transducer to the ideal or true value of the quantity being
measured. It should be high for any transducer.
 High stability and reliability :There should be a minimum·
amount of error in measurement and it should be unaffected by
temperature, vibrations and other environmental variations.
 Speed of response : It shows how quickly a transducer responds to
the changes in the quantity being measured. The speed of response
should be as high as possible.
 Sensitivity : The sensitivity of a transducer is defined as the output
produced per unit change in the input quantity being measured. For
example the _sensitivity of a thermocouple is expressed in m V /°C.
The sensitivity should be as high as possible.
 Size : A transducer must have small size, proper shape and
minimum volume so that it can be placed at any location for
measurements .
Dr. Ankita Malhotra
SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
Classification of transducers

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SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
Output is either mechanical or electrical in
nature
E.g. of mechanical transducer: springs,
pendulum etc.
E.g. of electrical transducer:
potentiometer, electromagnet etc.

Mechanical and electrical

transducers
Dr. Ankita Malhotra
SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
Active Transducers
These transducers do not need any external source of power for
their operation. Therefore they are also called as self generating
type transducers.

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
Passive Transducers
 Thesetransducers need external power supply for their operation.
So they are not self-generating type" transducers.
 A DC power supply or an ,audio frequency generator is used as an
external power source.

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
Classification Based on the
Quantity to be Measured

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
Analog and Digital Transducers
 The output is either analog or digital in nature.

 E.g. of analog transducer: thermocouple, strain gauge etc.

 E.g. of digital transducer: signal encoders

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
Primary and secondary
transducers
 Primary transducers: Which convert the primary input, which
is mostly the physical quantity into other form.

 Secondary transducers: which convert secondary input,

processed by primary transducer into the desired form

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
Transducer and Inverse
Transducer
 Transducers convert non-electrical quantity to electrical
quantity while inverse transducers convert electrical quantity
to a non electrical quantity;

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
According-to Transduction Principle
1. Capacitive transduction: In
capacitive transduction transducers,
the measurand is converted to a
change in the capacitance.

 2. Electromagnetic transduction: In
electromagnetic transduction, the
measurand is converted to voltage
induced 1n conductor by change in the
magnetic flux, in absense of excitation.
 The electromagnetic transducers are
self generating active transducers.

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
 3. Inductive induction :In inductive
transduction, the measured is
converted into a change in the self
inductance of a single coil. It is
achieved by displacing the core of
the coil that is attached to a
mechanical sensing element

 4. Piezo electric induction: In

piezoelectric induction the
measurand is converted into a
change· in· electrostatic charge q or
voltage V generated by crystals
when mechanically· it is stressed
Dr. Ankita Malhotra
SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
5. Photovoltaic transduction:In photovoltaic
transduction ·the measurand is converted to
voltage generated when the junction
between dissimilar materials is illuminated

6.Photo conductive transduction:In

photoconductive transduction the
measurand is converted to change in
resistance of semiconductor material by the
change in light incident on the material.

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
Transducer Selection Factor
 1. Nature of measurement: The selection of a transducer depends
on the nature of quantity to be measured e.g. for measuring
capacitance the capacitance sensors need to be used .
2. Cost and availability
3. Measuring system compatibility : The transducer selected must
be compatible with the electrical system used. The output
impedance of the transducer and the measuring system must not
affect each other.
4. Loading effect-: If the transducer affects the value to be
measured, errors may be introduced in the measured. Hence, in
order to ·minimize. the errors the loading effect should be
minimum.

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
5. Environmental considerations: output can be affected by
electromagnetic interference, shock , temperature etc.

6. Operating range: The transducer must be selected such that it

provides good resolution and range.

7. Sensitivity: It should be as high as possible.

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
 Sensors
 Sensorsare the devices used to sense changes in a physical quantity in the
surrounding environment in which they are kept.

 Sensors detect the presence of energy, changes in or the transfer of energy. Sensors
detect by receiving a signal from a device such as a transducer, then responding to
that signal by converting it into an output that can easily be read and understood.
Typically sensors convert a recognized signal into an electrical – analog or digital –
output that is readable. In other words, a transducer converts one form of
energy into another while the sensor that the transducer is part of converts the
output of the transducer to a readable format.

 Transducers convert one form of energy to another, but they do not quantify
the conversions. The light bulb converts electrical energy into light and heat;
however, it does not quantify how much light or heat. A battery converts
chemical energy into electrical energy but it does not quantify exactly how much
electrical energy is being converted. If the purpose of a device is to quantify an
energy level, it is a sensor.
Dr. Ankita Malhotra
SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
Examples of sensors
Thermal sensors:
Thermometer, Thermocouple gauge etc.

Mechanical Sensors : Pressure sensor ,Barometer ,Altimeter , Gas flow

sensor , Accelerometer etc.

Electrical Sensors: Ohmmeter, Voltmeter, galvanometer etc.

Optical sensors: photo detectors, photo resistors, infra-red detectors etc.

Others: motion sensors, chemical sensors etc.

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
Inductive Sensor
 Inductive sensors use currents induced by magnetic fields to detect
nearby metal objects.
 The inductive sensor uses a coil (an inductor) to generate a high
frequency magnetic field as shown below. If there is a metal object
near the changing magnetic field, induced current (eddy current) will
flow in the object.

This resulting eddy current

flow sets up a new magnetic
field that opposes the original
magnetic field. The net effect
is that it changes the
inductance of the coil in the
inductive sensor.

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
Single-ended eddycurren~ type inductive
sensor

Single-ended eddy current type inductive sensor

Push-pull eddy current type inductive sensor

Dr. Ankita Malhotra
SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
Inductive sensor

 Inductive sensors are used in the industry to avoid

collisions/detect collision or to detect part position.

 Their range is limited by the magnetic field of the sensor.

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
Capacitive sensors
 Capacitive sensors are primary sensors for measurement of
displacements. They are also known as proximity sensors in the
sense that they measure the nearness of an object without any
mechanical coupling between them.
 They can detect displacement of metallic and non-metallic objects
both.
 They are commonly used in touch switches.

 Itis non-loading, noncontact and non-invasive type sensor for

displacement measurements.

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
 Displacements conveyed to the movable plate may be so arranged as to
either vary A which is the area common to the plates or alter the extent of
penetration of a dielectric material inside the plates. The capacitance of
such sensors is as low as 1 PF and with the help of suitable electrical
circuitry, it is possible to detect very small variations in capacitance and
measure displacements of the order of 25 nm.

 Capacitive sensors with cylindrical electrodes are popular for

measurements of pressure of fluids and level of fluids and granular
materials.

 For composition measurement, variation effect of dielectric .90nstant due

to variation in composition, absorption of moisture and other effects is
used. The dielectric constant of certain insulators and semiconductors
varies with temperature. This effect is used for measurement of
temperature.
Dr. Ankita Malhotra
SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
Capacitive Pressure Sensors
 It consists of a fixed plate and a movable plate. The movable plate
is either a metallic diaphragm or the membrane.
 Capacitive pressure sensor using diaphragm is shown in diagram.
Due to deformation of the clamped diaphragm for the deflection y
at any radius r from the centre of the diaphragm, the capacitance
changes.

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
 Consider an annular element of width dr at a distance r from the
centre. Its capacitance can be given by

d = initial spacing between the electrodes without any pressure

difference Δp
y = displacement of the annular element from its initial position

 For small deflections with y/d << l,

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
 The total capacitance due to the deflected diaphragm is given by

For a diaphragm, the deflection y at any radius r from the centre is

given by:

The fractional change in capacitance can be given by

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
Cylindrical capacitive sensor for
pressure measurements

The capacitance Co of the sensor is given by

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
The dielectric constants of gases and liquids vary
with pressure. To measure pressure, of such fluids,
the cylindrical electrode arrangement shown in figure
is used so that the pressure is continuously measured.
under flowing conditions. The walls of the metallic
pipe are used as the electrode and a· solid
cylindrical rod running along the pip serve as the
inner electrode .

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
Capacitive Displacement sensor
The capacitive displacement sensor is fundamentally a proximity sensor

Single ended capacitive displacement sensor

If the sensor has ·a solid insulating material of dielectric constant ε, the

capacitance is given by

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
 If
the air gap is decreased by Δx, the capacitance increases by ΔC
which is given by,

 Fractional change in capacitance:

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
 Push-pull type capacitive displacement

The range of linearity can be extended to a large extent by using

push-pull sensor.

Unity-ratio arm Wheatstone bridge circuit may be used for

measuring ΔC/Co.

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
Potentiometers
 A resistive potentiometer (Pot) consists of a resistance element with
a sliding contact, called a wiper. The motion of sliding contact may
be translatory or rotational or a combination of both.

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
  Under no load condition:

Where Vo=Output voltage under no load condition

Ei = Input voltage
Rx =Resistance after displacement of contactor
Rp = Full resistance of potentiometer
For the same position of contactor, output voltage will get reduced if
voltmeter has finite input resistance. In that case, fraction value x' is
given by:

Voʹ = voltage under Voltmeter with

loading resistance RL

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
Let,

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
 The error is given by:

Percentage error =

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
Advantages:
 1.They are inexpensive.
 2. They are simple to operate and are very useful for applications
where the requirements are not particularly severe.
 3. They are useful for the measurement of large amplitudes of
displacement.
 4. Electrical efficiency is very high and they provide sufficient
output to allow control operations.

Disadvantages:
 1. When using a linear potentiometer, a large force is required to
move the sliding contacts.
 2. The sliding contacts can wear out, become misaligned and
generate noise.

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
 Linear Variable Differential Transformers (LVDT)
for Measurement of Pressure and Displacement
It is a variable inductance displacement transducer.

The LVDT consists of a primary winding and two identical secondary

windings. These windings are axially spaced. A rod shaped magnetic core
is positioned centrally inside the coil assembly. This rod provides a low
reluctance path for the magnetic flux linking the coils (windings). The
moving object, displacement of which is to be measured is coupled to this
movable rod.
Dr. Ankita Malhotra
SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
 Equivalent circuit Transfer characteristics of LVDT

The output voltage is given by:

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
Operation of LVDT :
 Theprimary winding is connected to the ac source.
 Assume that the core is exactly at the centre of the coil assembly.
Then the flux linked to both the secondary windings will be equal.
Due to equal flux linkage, secondary induced voltages are equal but
they have opposite polarities.
eo= 0 When core is at centre Null position
 Now if the core is displaced from its null position towards
secondary-1 then the flux linked to secondary-1 increases and flux
linked to secondary-2 decreases.
eo1 > eo2 eo = positive

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
 Ifthe core is displaced towards the secondary-2 then flux liked to
secondary-2 will be more than secondary-1
eo2 > eo1 eo = negative
 Thus the magnitude of output signal Is made to vary "linearly'' with
the mechanical displacement. Hence the word "Linear," is used in
LVDT. The output is obtained "differentially" between the two
secondary windings. Hence the word "differential" is used in LVDT.

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
Operation of LVDT

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
Performance characteristics of LVDT
 i) Null voltage: Ideally, the output of L VDT should be zero when
its core is at null position. But practically a small residual voltage
(called as null voltage) is observed at the null position of the core.
This is due to the presence of harmonics in the output of excitation
source and stray capacitance between the primary and secondary
windings.

 ii)Resolution: If we assume that the L VDT is frictionless then it

can respond to very minute movement of the core to produce a
proportional output voltage. This makes the resolution of the LVDT
ideally infinite.

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
 iii)
Linearity : As is clear from transfer characteristics of, the
LVDT response is quite linear.

 iv) Sensitivity :it is typically 1 to 2 m V /0.01 mm for the LVDT.

 v) Excitation voltage and excitation frequency :Maximum

excitation voltage is limited by the maximum primary current which
can be allowed to flow.
The excitation frequency should be precisely adjusted to a
frequency where the best possible Sensitivity of detection can be
obtained. This frequency is between 1 kHz to 10 kHz.
 vi) Dynamic response: This indicates how fast the LVDT responds
to the displacement of the core. Dynamic response is 'dependent on
the excitation frequency and the core weight.

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
Advantages of LVDT
 1. Very fine resolution
 2. High accuracy
 3. Very good stability
 4. Linearity of transfer characteristic(better than 0.25 %) .
 5. Ease of fabrication and installation
 6. Ability to operate at high temperature_
 7. High sensitivity (2mVNolt/10 microns at 4kHz excitation).

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
Disadvantages:
 1. LVDT is sensitive to the external magnetic fields. To minimize
this effect magnetic shielding is necessary.
 2. Complicated circuitry is needed.
 3. Due to mass of the core, LVDT is not suitable for dynamic
measurement (fast displacements).
 4. Larger displacements are needed to get appreciable differential
output.

Applications: In addition to displacement measurement the L VDT

is used in measurement of pressure, load, acceleration, force, weight
etc.

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
Rotary Variable Differential
Transformer (RVDT) :
 Itis used to sense angular displacement. It is similar to L VDT
except the shape of core and may be rotated between its windings
by means of a shaft.

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
 At the null position of its core, the output voltage of secondary
windings S1 and S2 are equal and in opposition. Therefore the net
output is zero.
 Any angular displacement from the null position will result in a
differential voltage output. Hence the response of transducer is
linear.

 Clockwise rotation produces an increasing voltage of a secondary

winding of one phase while anticlockwise rotation produces an
increasing voltage of opposite phase.

Dr. Ankita Malhotra

SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering
Strain Gauges
Dr. Ankita Malhotra
SVKM's D J Sanghvi Colle
ge of Engineering