MINERALS

THE NATURE OF MINERALS`

• Approximately 4% of the body’s mass consists
of 22 mostly metallic elements collectively
called minerals.
• Minerals serve as constituents of enzymes,
hormones, and vitamins;
• They combine with other chemicals (e.g
calcium phosphate in bone, iron in the heme
of hemoglobin)
• A mineral is a chemical element required as an
essential nutrient by organisms to perform functions
necessary for life.
• Minerals originate in the earth and cannot be made
by living organisms.
• Plants get minerals from soil.

• Most of the minerals in a human diet come from

eating plants and animals or from drinking water
 Classification of body minerals
• The varying amounts of individual minerals in
the body are the basis for classification into
two main group :
o MAJOR MINERALS
o TRANCE MINERALS
 MAJOR MINERALS :
• Major minerals have a recommended intake of more than
100 mg/day.
• The body cannot make any minerals, all minerals must be
consumed in the foods that we eat.

 TRACE MINERALS :
• 18 elements make up the group of trace minerals.
• These minerals are no less important to human nutrition
than major minerals.
• Trace minerals have a recommended intake of less than
100 mg/day.
 The seven major minerals are
• CALCIUM
• PHOSPHOROUS
• MAGNESIUM
• SODIUM
• POTASSIUM
• CHLORIDE
• SULPHUR
 The trace elements are subdivided into three
categories:
1.Essential trace elements:
Iron,copper,iodine,manganese,zinc,molybdenum,cobalt
,fluorine,selenium and chromium.
2.Possibly essential trace elements:
Nickel, vanadium, cadmium and barium.
3.Non-essential trace elements:
Aluminum, lead, mercury, boron, silver, bismuth etc.
 ROLE OF MINERALS IN THE BODY
• Minerals serve 3 broad roles in the body:
1. Provide structure in forming bones and teeth
2. Help to maintain normal function (e.g., heart
rhythm, muscle contractility, neural
conductivity, and acid-base balance).
3. Regulate metabolism by becoming
constituents of enzymes and hormones that
modulate cellular activity.
 FUNCTIONS OF MINERALS
• These simple single elements perform a wide variety
of metabolic tasks in the body .
• They are involved in processes of building tissue as
well as activating, regulating, transmitting, and
controlling metabolic processes.
• For example,
 Sodium and potassium are key roles in water balance.
 Calcium and phosphorus are required for osteoclasts
to build bone.
 Iron is critical to the oxygen carrier hemoglobin
 Cobalt is at the active site of vitamin B12.
 MINERAL BIOAVAILABILITY
• The body varies considerably in its capacity to
absorb and use the minerals in food.
• For example;
 Spinach contains considerable calcium, but
only about 5% becomes bioavailable
(absorbed).
 Four factors that affect mineral bioavailability
include:
1) TYPE OF FOOD: The small intestine readily
absorbs minerals contained in animal
products because they do not contain plant
binders and dietary fibers that hinder
digestion and absorption.

2) MINERALS- MINERAL INTERACTION: many

minerals have the same molecular weight
and thus compete for intestine absorption.
3) VITAMIN- MINERAL INTERACTION: various
vitamins interact with minerals in a manner that
affects mineral bioavailability. Vitamin D
facilitates calcium absorption, while Vitamin C
improves intestinal absorption of iron.

4) FIBER- MINERAL INTERACTION: high fiber intake

blunts the absorption of calcium, iron,
magnesium, and phosphorus by binding to
them so they pass unabsorbed through the
digestive tract.
• Milk
• Cheese
• Dark green vegetables
• Dried legumes
• Cabbage
CALCIUM
 INTRODUCTION
 Most abundant mineral in the body.

 99% of calcium is present in the bones and teeth.

 Remaining 1% is in the blood and ECF in cells and

soft tissues.

 Calcium taken in the diet is in the form of calcium

phosphate or carbonate.
 Daily Requirement :
• Adult men and women- 800 mg/day
• Women during pregnancy lactation and
menopause- 1.5 g/day
• Children -0.8-1.2 g/day
• Infants – 300-500 mg/day
 Normal Serum Level : 8.8 – 10.2 mg/dl
SOURCES
• Milk
• Cheese
• Dark green vegetables
• Dried legumes
• Cabbage
 FUNCTIONS
• Calcification of bones and teeth.
• Blood coagulation and cofactor in conversion of
prothrombin to thrombin.
• Action of enzymes : certain proteolytic enzymes are
activated by calcium.
• Muscle contraction.
• Neuromuscular excitability.
• Hormone action : Ca2+ serves as an intracellular
secondary messenger of different hormones.
• Membrane permeability is increased by calcium.
 ABSORBED
• Absorbed mainly in the acidic part of the
duodenum.
• Absorption is decreased in the lower GI
tract which is more alkaline.
• 20-30% of digested calcium is absorbed.
• Absorption is through a vitamin D derivative
which stimulates production of calcium
binding protein and alkaline phosphate.
• Unabsorbed form is excreted in faeces.
 FACTORS DECREASING CALCIUM
ABSORPTION
• More efficiently absorbed when the body is
deficient.

• Best absorbed in acidic environment (upper

duodenum).

• HCL in stomach allows better absorption in the

proximal duodenum

• Taking calcium with food increases absorption.

 FACTORS DECREASES CALCIUM
ABSORPTION
• Lack of vitamin D.

• Oxalic acid forms insoluble complex which decreases

absorption.

• Phytic acid found in outer husks of cereal grains also

form insoluble complex.

• Alkaline medium decreases absorption (lower GI tract).

• Aging decreases absorption.

• Hypercalcemia:
Seen mainly in;

 Hyperparathyroidism
 Multiple myeloma
 Metastatic carcinoma of bone
 Treatment with drugs such as diuretics
 Hypervitaminosis D
• Hypocalcaemia:

Seen mainly in;

 Tetany
 Hypoparathyroidism
 Fanconi’s syndrome (disorder of tubular
reabsorption)
 Acute pancreatitis
 Vitamin D deficiency
 Chronic renal failure
 EXCRETION
• Normally 65-70% of ingested calcium is to be
excreted in the feces and urine.

• Strenuous exercise increases loss in sweat.

• Immobility with bed rest , increase calcium

loss because of lack of bone tension
 CALCIUM DEFICIENCY
 Bone : Osteoporosis, Osteopenia
 Tetany : Decreased serum levels increases the
irritability of nerve fibers resulting in muscle spasms,
fatal laryngospasm.
– Chvostek’s sign: Contraction of the facial muscle
after tapping the facial nerve.
– Trousseau’s sign: Carpal spasm after occlusion of the
brachial artery with blood pressure cuff for 3 mins.
 HTN : Controversial
 ECG Changes : Prolonged QT segment showing
arrhythmias.
 TOXICITY
 Polyuria
 Constipation
 Bone pain
 Azotemia
 Coma
 Psychiatric disturbances
 Stones
CHLORIDE
 CHLORIDE
• It is a chemical form of chlorine in the body.
• It accounts for 3% of body’s total mineral
content.
 FUNCTIONS
• Chloride helps to maintain the water and acid
base balances in the extracellular fluids
compartment.
• It has 2 significant functions in digestion and
respiration.
• Digestion- Chloride is a element of
hydrochloric acid that is secreted in the gastric
juices.
•Respiration- Carbon release by cellular
metabolism combine with water in the RBC to
form carbonic acid H2CO3, which dissociates to
form HCO3 and H+ IONS.

•HCO3 leaves the RBC and enters the plasma.

•Chorine from the plasma enters the RBC in

order to maintain the balance of negative ion.

•This process is called the chloride shift.

 REQUIREMENTS
• The AI for chloride for young adults is 3.2
g/day.
 SOURCES
• Dietary chloride is almost entirely provided by
sodium chloride, which is the chemical name
of ordinary table salts.
 HYPOCHLOREMIA
• It is an electrolytes disturbances in which there is an
abnormally low level of the chloride ion in the blood. The
normal serum range for chloride is 97 to 107 mEq/L
• The symptoms that may indicate a chloride imbalance
include:
1. excessive fatigue.
2. muscle weakness.
3. breathing problems.
4. frequent vomiting.
5. prolonged diarrhea.
6. excessive thirst.
7. high blood pressure..
 HYPERCHLOREMIA
• Hyperchloremia is an electrolytes disturbances in which
there is an elevated level of the chloride ions in the blood.
The normal serum range for chloride is 96 to 106 mEq/L.

SYMPTOMS ARE
1. Dehydration - due to diarrhea, vomiting, sweating
2. Hypertension - due to increased sodium chloride intake
3. Cardiovascular dysfunction - due to increased sodium
chloride intake
4. Edema - due to influx in sodium in the body
5. Weakness - due to loss of fluids
6. Thirst - due to loss of fluids
 DEFICIENCY
• A dietary deficiency of chloride does not occur
in the normal condition.
• Because the normal intake and output of
chloride from the body parallels that of sodium,
condition that leads to sodium deficiency also
leads to chloride deficiency.
• The primary reasons for chloride deficiency is
excess loss through vomiting which results in
metabolic alkalosis from disturbances in the
acid base balance.
PHOSPHORUS
• Phosphorus is an important constituent in every body
tissue. It’s total amount constitute 1% of the body
weight.
• Phosphorus combines with calcium to form
Hydroxyapatite and calcium phosphate which gives
rigidity to bones and teeth.

• Also, it is an essential component of intracellular

mediator cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)
and the intramuscular high energy compounds
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and phosphocreatine
(PCr).
 FUNCTIONS:
i. Bone and tooth formation:

• The calcification of bone and teeth depends on the

deposition of hydroxyapatite [Ca 10(PO4)6(OH)2]
by osteoblasts in bone’s collagen matrix.

• The ratio of calcium to phosphorus in typical bone

is approximately 1.5:1 by weight.
ii. Energy Metabolism:

• Phosphorus in the form of phosphate (PO43-) is

necessary for the controlled oxidation of
carbohydrate, fat and protein to release the energy in
their covalent bonds and it captures energy for use by
the body as a component of ATP.

• Phosphate is also involved in protein construction (as

a component of RNA), cell function (as a component
of cell enzymes activated by Phosphorylation) and
genetic inheritance (as a component of DNA)
iii. Acid Base Balance:

• Phosphate is an important chemical buffer that

helps to maintain the pH haemostasis of body
fluids.
 REQUIREMENTS:
 Infants:  Males and Females:
• 0-6 months: 100 mg/day. • 9-18 yrs: 1250 mg/day.
• 7-12 months: 275 mg/day. • After 19 yrs: 700 mg/day.

 Children:  Pregnancy & Lactation:

• 1-3 years: 460 mg/day. • ≤ 18 years: 1250 mg/day.
• 4-8 years: 500 mg/day. • 19-50 years: 700 mg/day.
 DEFICIENCY:
• Phosphate (the dietary form of phosphorus) is
widely distributed in foods; thus, a deficiency is
rare.
• Phosphorus deficiency (Hypophosphatemia)
causes bone loss, characterised by weakness, loss
of appetite, fatigue and pain.
TOXICITY:
• Hyperphosphatemia is also rare. However, if
phosphorus intake is significantly higher than
calcium intake for a longer time, bone
resorption may occur.
 SOURCES:
• High protein foods are particularly rich in phosphorus.

• Milk and milk products, meat, fish and eggs are primary
sources in average diet.
 MAGNESIUM

An adult body contains 25gms of magnesium on

average. 60% of this is present in the bones.
Functions-
It has metabolic functions. 99% of body
magnesium is intracellular and rest 1% is in
extracellular space.
1. General metabolism: It is a necessary cofactor
for more than 300 enzymes that make use of
nucleotide triphosphates (eg. ATP) for
activation or catalyzing reactions that produce
energy, synthesize body compounds or help to
transport nutrients across cell membranes.
2. Protein synthesis: It is a cofactor for enzymes
that activate amino acids for protein synthesis
and that synthesize and maintain DNA . Cell
replication process requires magnesium to
function correctly.
3. Muscle action: Mg ions are involved in the
conduction of nerve impulses that stimulate
muscle contraction as part of MgATP.
Calcium is pumped out of myofibrillar spaces
into the sarcoplasmic reticulum by pumps
that require MgATP for energy.
4. Basal metabolic rate: MgATP is involved in
secretion of thyroxine, thus helping the body
to maintain a normal metabolic rate and to
adapt to cold temperatures.
Requirements-
0-6 months 30 mg/day
7-12 months 70 mg/day
1-3 yrs 80 mg/day
4-8 yrs 130 mg/day
9 yrs and older males 240-420 mg/day
9yrs and older females 240-360 mg/day
pregnancy 350-400 mg/day (iron
supplements)
lactation 310-360 mg/day
Deficiency-
• Rare among people who consume balanced diets.
• Hypomagnesemia seen in situations such as
starvation, persistent vomiting, diarrhea, renal
disorders.
• It is seen in diseases that involve the cardiovascular
and neuromuscular systems and also in DM, kidney
disease and alcoholism.
• In severe cases it can be life threatening .
• Symptoms- muscle weakness, cramps,
hypertension, blood vessel constriction in heart and
brain.
Toxicity-
• Mg from food does not have adverse effects at
high intake levels.
• Mg intake from supplements and
pharmaceutical preparations should be kept in
check.
• UL for non food sources is 350 mg/day for 9
yrs and older people. It is less for younger
children.
• Symptoms- nausea, vomiting and diarrhea.
Food sources-
• Unprocessed foods have highest concentrations
of magnesium.
• Major sources: nuts, soybeans, cocoa, seafood,
whole grains, dried beans, peas and green
vegetables.
• More than 80% of Mg in cereal grains is lost
with removal of germ and outer layers.
• Mg may be present in drinking water in regions
with hard water with a fairly high mineral
content.
 IRON

• Human body contains approx. 45mg/ kg of

body weight.
• Iron is transported in the body bound to
transfer in and is stored as ferritin in the liver,
spleen and other tissues.
Functions-
1. Hemoglobin synthesis: It serves as the
functional part of hemoglobin. Approx. 70%
of body’s iron is in hemoglobin within
RBC’s. Iron is a component of heme, which
is the non-protein part of hemoglobin.
Hemoglobin carries oxygen to cells, where it
is used for oxidation and metabolism. Iron is
also a part of myoglobin, a protein found in
muscle cells that is structurally and
functionally same as hemoglobin in blood.
2. General metabolism: Iron is necessary for
glucose metabolism, antibody production,
drug detoxification by liver, collagen and
purine synthesis and conversion of β- carotene
to active vit A.
Requirements-
0-6 months 0.27 mg/day
7-12 months 11 mg/day
1-3 yrs 7 mg/day
4-8 yrs 10 mg/day
9 yrs and older males 8-11 mg/day
9yrs and older females 8-18 mg/day
pregnancy 27 mg/day (iron
supplements)
lactation 9-10 mg/day
Deficiency-
• Iron deficiency leads to anemia.
• It is usually evaluated biochemically by hematocrit
value, RBC hemoglobin level or percentage of
transferrin saturation.
• It is mostly seen in preschoolers and pregnant women.
• Causes- inadequate dietary iron intake, excessive
blood loss, inability to form hemoglobin due to lack of
vit B12 (pernicious anemia), lack of gastric HCl which
liberates iron for intestinal absorption, inhibitors of
iron absorption (phytate, phosphate, tanin, oxalate),
intestinal mucosal lesions that affect the absorptive
surface area.
Toxicity-
• Toxicity from a single large dose (20-60mg/day)
can be fatal. Upper limit is 45mg/day in adults.
• Symptoms- nausea, vomiting, diarrhea.
• If not treated immediately, organ systems may be
adversely affected. (cardiovascular system, CNS,
kidney, liver, hematologic system)
• Chronic excessive iron intake through dietary
supplements may impair absorption of zinc, cause
GI upset and increased risk of heart disease and
cancer.
• Hemochromatosis i.e. iron overload disease, results
from 5 types of gene mutations. (most common:
hemochromatosis gene)
• It is an autosomal recessive gene where in spite of
normal iron uptake, it results in iron overload.
Individuals absorb excessive amounts of iron from
food.
• Accumulation causes organ damage.
• Treatment: frequent bloodletting (therapeutic
phlebotomy) to reestablish normal serum iron levels.
• Patients may have normal life expectancy if
treatment is given before organ damage occurs.
Food sources-
• Iron is primarily present in meat, eggs,
vegetables and fortified cereals.
• Body absorbs iron more readily when taken
along with vit. C
• Iron in food occurs in two forms: heme and
non-heme.
• Heme iron is most readily absorbed form of
dietary iron, but contributes least to the total
iron intake.
• Characteristics of heme and non-heme
portions of dietary iron:
HEME NON-HEME
FOOD SOURCES None in plant sources; All iron in plant sources;
40% of iron in animal 60% of iron in animal
sources sources

ABSORPTION RATE Rapid; transported and Slow; tightly bound in

absorbed intact organic molecules

• To enhance the absorption of non-heme iron,

food souces of vit. C and lean meats, fish,
poultry should be taken in the same meal.
SODIUM
 Dietary source
• Most commonly found in common salt.

• Aside from table salt, sodium rich dietary

sources include monosodium glutamate
(MSG), soy sauce, canned foods, baking soda
and baking powder.
 Major bodily functions
• Sodium along with chlorine consist the prime minerals present in
blood plasma and extracellular fluid. Electrolytes modulate fluid
movement within the body’s various fluid compartments. This allows
for a constant, well-regulated exchange of nutrients and waste
products between the cell and its external fluid environment.

• A difference in electrical balance between the cell’s interior and

exterior allows
 Regulates acid-base balance
 Body water balance
 Nerve function (Action-potential)
 Deficiency

• Muscle cramps
• Mental apathy
• Reduced appetite
 Excess

• Contributes to high B.P

POTASSIUM
 INTRODUCTION
• Potassium is a very important mineral for the
function of all of our cells, tissues and organs
in our body.
• It is also a substance that takes away any
electricity in the body, along with sodium,
chloride,calcium and magnesium.
• Potassium also helps in muscle contractions
and fluid balance .
 FUNCTION
• Potassium is involved with sodium in the
maintenance of the body water balance.
• Potassium is the major electrolyte inside
cells(intracellular).Its osmotic effect holds
water inside the cells and counter balance the
osmotic effects of sodium, which draw water
out of the cells and into the extracellular
fluids.
• Potassium play a role of energy production,
the conversion of blood glucose into thee
stored glycogen.
• Potassium ions also play a role in nerve
impulse transmission to stimulate muscle
action. Along with magnesium and sodium,
potassium acts as the muscle relaxants that
opposes the stimulating effects of calcim,
which allows for muscle contraction.
 REQUIREMENTS
• AI(adequate intake) of potassium is 4.7g/day.
• The national research council recommends an
increase in potassium through increase the
consumption of fruits and vegetables.
 DEFICIENCY
• Potassium deficiency also known as hypokalemia.,
more likely to develop during situations like
prolonged vomiting, diarrhea, use of diuretics,
severe malnutrients, and consumption of
antihypertensive medication.
• Symptoms of hypokaelemia include heart muscle
weakness with possible cardiac arrest, respiratory
muscle weakness with difficulty in breathing, poor
intestinal muscle tone with resulting bloating and
overall muscle weakness.
 SOURCES
• Potassium is abundant in natural foods.
• Fruits such as oranges and bananas
• Vegetables such as broccoli and leafy green
vegetables.
• Fresh meats
• Whole grains,
• Milk products
 Sources of potassium

Item Quantity Amount in mg

Bread,cereals,rice and pasta ¾ cup 803

Vegetables-avacado,raw brussel ¼ medium 244

sprouts, ½ cup 247
boiled potato 1 medium 926
Spinach ,boiled ½ cup 419
Tomato,raw 1 medium 254

Fruits
Banana 1 medium 422
Dates,dried ¼ cup 292
Orange juice,fresh orange ,navel 8 floz 496

Meat,polutry,fish
Beef liver 3 oz 298
Clams,cooked 3 oz 534
Crabs 3 oz 275

Milk and diary products

Milk 8 fl oz 382
Yogurt 8 fl oz 573
Minerals and exercise
performance
 Minerals loss in sweat

• Excessive water and electrolyte loss impairs heat tolerance and exercise performance.
• It also leads to severe dysfunction that culminates in heat cramps, heat exhaustion, or
heat stroke.
• An athlete may lose upto 5kg of water from sweating during practice or an athletic
event. This corresponds to about 8.0g of salt depletion, because each kg(1l) of sweat
contains about 1.5g of salts.
• Despite this potential for minerals loss, replacement of water lost through sweating
becomes crucial and should be replenished immediately.
• Consuming minerals supplements above recommended levels on a long or short term
basis does not benefit exercise performance or enhance training responsiveness.
Defence against mineral loss
 SWEAT LOSS

Co-ordinated release of the hormones vasopressin and aldosterone

and the enzyme renin

Reduces sodium and water loss through the kidneys

Under extreme conditions such as running a marathon in warm,

humid weather when sweat output can equal 2L per hour, an
increase in sodium conservation occurs

Adding salt to the fluid or food ingested usually replenishes

electrolytes lost in sweat
 Recent advance.
The Role of Mineral and Trace Element Supplementation in
Exercise and Athletic Performance: A Systematic Review

• Journal : Nutrients, 2019 March

• Authors: Shane Michael Heffernan, Katy Horner et al

• Abstract :
Aim = The aim of this study was to systematically review the role of MTEs in
exercise and athletic performance.
Six electronic databases and grey literature sources (MEDLINE; EMBASE;
CINAHL and SportDISCUS; Web of Science and clinicaltrials.gov) were
searched, in accordance with PRISMA guidelines.
Results: 17,433 articles were identified and 130 experiments
from 128 studies were included.
No relevant articles were identified for Copper, Manganese,
Iodine, Nickel, Fluoride or Cobalt. Only Iron and Magnesium
included articles of sufficient quality to be assigned as ‘strong’.
Currently, there is little evidence to support the use of MTE
supplementation to improve physiological markers of athletic
performance, with the possible exception of Iron (in particular,
biological situations) and Magnesium as these currently have
the strongest quality evidence.
• Conclusion :

Currently, there is not sufficient evidence to suggest specific guidelines to assist

in formulating mineral specific dietary recommendations to improve athletic
performance.In general, the scientific evidence to support the use of mineral
supplementation for sports performance is lacking in volume and quality.

Iron and Magnesium supplementation remain the minerals with the most and
highest quality research, although greater advances in randomised control trials
are required.

Furthermore, there is a need for the replication of some key, good quality
studies investigating the efficacy of particular minerals for athletic performance.
 REFERENCES

• Exercise physiology: nutrition, energy and

human performance; 7th edition; William
McArdle; 56-72
• William’s Basic Nutrition and Diet Therapy;
14th edition; Nix