POWER SYSTEMS -2 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

POWER SYSTEM-II
V SEMESTER
EEC-303
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi

1
Subject: PS-II, Instructor: Dr. Kusum Tharani
SYLLABUS
Unit – I
Classification of Relays: Electromechanical, static and numerical relays: Construction, operating
characteristic and their applications.
Protection of Generators and Transformers: Differential Protection, protection of stator windings, rotor
earth fault protection, protection against unbalanced loading, loss of excitation and prime mover failure;
Protection of motors (induction and synchronous) and bus bars.
Transformer Protection: Types of faults, percentage differential protection, Buchholz relay
Unit – II
Protection of Transmission Lines: Over current protection, Grading of over current relays, distance
protection,types of distance relays and their characteristics, carrier current protection, protection against surges,
surge diverters, surge absorbers, use of ground wires on transmission lines, methods of grounding
Unit – III
Fuses and Circuit Breakers: Types & Applications of Fuse and MCB, RCCB, ELCB Current interruption
theories,
types of Circuit Breakers: Air, air‐blast, Oil, SF6 and Vacuum circuit breakers‐Principle, ratings and
applications,
HVDC Circuit breaker, Testing of circuit breakers
Unit – IV
Stability and Load Dispatch: Swing equation, steady state stability, equal area criteria, critical clearing angle,
point by point method, Load frequency control, load frequency control with GRC, Speed Governor Dead Band
2 and its effects. Load despatch analysis in power system.
Text Books
[T1] Paithanker, Bhide ,Fundamentals of Power System Protection, PHI 2014

[T2] Badri Ram,Power System Protection and Switchgear, TMH Publications 2nd
Edition
Reference Books:
[R1] J. J. Grainger & W.D. Stevenson, “Power System Analysis” TMH Publication,
2003
[R2] Paul M. Anderson “Power System Protection” IEEE Press.
[R3] C L Wadhwa, “Electrical Power System” Wiley Eastern Ltd., 3rd edition 2000
[R4] D.P. Kothari and I.J. Nagrath “Modern Power System Analysis “ TMH 4th
Edition
• B Ravindranath M Chander,Power System Protection and Switchgear ,New Age

International Ltd.
3
Course Objectives :
1. To introduce the concepts and constructional features

and operation of relays, and protection of generators and
transformers
2. Familiarise students with various protection schemes
of transmission lines
3. Knowledge of fuse and circuit breakers
4. Explore stability analysis

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COURSE OUTCOMES
CO 1 To analyse construction and operating characteristics

of protective relays, and protection of generators and
transformers
CO 2 Gain knowledge of various methods of protection,
transmission lines
CO 3 Familiarise with the working and applications of
fuse and circuit breakers
CO 4 Able to analyse stability of systems

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UNIT-I
Classification of Relays: Electromechanical, static and numerical

relays: Construction, operating characteristic and their applications.
Protection of Generators and Transformers: Differential
Protection, protection of stator windings, rotor earth fault protection,
protection against unbalanced loading, loss of excitation and prime
mover failure; Protection of motors (induction and synchronous)
and bus bars.
Transformer Protection: Types of faults, percentage differential
protection, Buchholz relay
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Need for Power System Protection
To ensure uninterrupted power supply to
consumers throughout the day
To ensure power system stability(Voltage and
frequency are within the desired range)
To minimize damage to the equipment
Shielding against Overloads and Over
voltages(Lightning)

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Components used for Protection
 CT
 PT
 CVT
 Isolators/Disconnectors
 Relays
 Fuses
 CBs
 MCB
 MCCB
 RCB
 Auxiliary devices(switches)
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Difference Between Isolator and Circuit Breaker
BASIS ISOLATOR CIRCUIT BREAKER

Type of device Isolator is an off load device Circuit Breaker is an On
load device.
Operation It is operated manually. It is operated Automatically.
Action of device It is a Mechanical device It is an Electronic device

which acts as a switch. made by using MOSFET or
BJT.
Function Isolator cut out a portion of The Circuit breaker is a

a substation when a fault device such as ACB or
occurred. The other devices MCB, which trips the entire
operate without any system if there is any fault.
interruption.
Withstand Capability They have the low They have the high
withstand capacity as withstand capability at
compared to Circuit the on load condition.
Breaker.
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Isolator and Circuit Breaker

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ISOLATOR
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, BVCOE New Delhi

11 Subject: SUBJECT NAME , Instructor: INSTRUCTOR NAME
Zones of Protection

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Need for Zones of Protection
 A separate zone of protection is provided around each system
element .
 Failurethat may occur within a given zone will cause the
tripping or opening of all circuit breakers within that zone.
 For failures that occur within a region where two protective
zones overlap, more breakers will be tripped than are necessary
to disconnect the faulty component
 However, if there were no overlap of protective zones, a fault in a
region between the two zones would result in no protective
action at all.
 Therefore, it is desirable for protective zone overlap to
ensure the maximum system protection.
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TRIP CIRCUIT

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What is Relay
A relay is an automatic device which senses an
abnormal condition of electrical circuit and closes its
contacts.
These contacts in turns close and complete the circuit

breaker trip coil circuit hence make the circuit breaker
tripped for disconnecting the faulty portion of the
electrical circuit from rest of the healthy circuit

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Subject: PS-II, Instructor: Dr.Kusum Tharani
Important Terms
Energising/Actuating Quantity – Current/Voltage

Pickup – When relay moves from off position to on
position.
Fault Clearing Time – Time elapsed between instant of
occurrence of fault and instant of final arc extinction in
circuit breaker.
T(Relay)+T(CB)+T(Arc)
16 Subject: PS-II, Instructor: Dr.Kusum Tharani

Primary and Back up Relays
 Primary relays provide the first line of defense. Such
relays sense the fault and send a signal to the proper circuit
breaker to trip and clear the fault.
 Sometimes the fault may not be cleared if the circuit
breaker fails to open or relay mal operates.
 The relay failure is because of three reasons such as wrong
setting, bad contacts and open circuit in the relay coil.
 In such cases, the second line of defense is provided by
the backup relays.
 The backup relay has longer operating time, even though
they sense the fault along with the primary relays.
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Essential Qualities of Protection Systems
Every Protection Systems which isolates a faulty element is
required to satisfy four basic requirements:
Reliability
Selectivity
Fastness of operation
Discrimination.

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Reliability
Reliability is a qualitative term.
Quantitatively it can be expressed as a probability of
failure.
 Failure is not confined to protective gear but may also be
due to breaker defects.
Therefore every component and circuit involved in fault
clearance must be regarded as a potential source of failure.
 Failure can be reduced to a small calculated risk by
inherently reliable designs backed by regular and thorough
maintenance.

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Reliability
 Quality of personnel must not be overlooked when considering
reliability, for mistakes by personnel are among the most likely causes
of failure.
 Some features of design and manufacture which make relays
inherently reliable are high contact pressures, dust free enclosures,
well braced joints and impregnated coils.
 Precautions in manufacture and assembly reduce liability to failure.
Components should be treated to prevent contamination
 Records show that the order of likelihood of failure is: relays,
breakers, wiring, current transformers, voltage transformers and
battery.
 When relays using transistors are considered, the failure rate goes up
still further.
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Selectivity
 This is the property by which only the faulty element of the Protection
Systems is isolated and the remaining healthy sections are left intact.
 Selectivity is absolute if the protection responds only to faults within its
own zone, and relative if it is obtained by grading the settings of the
protections of several zones all of which may respond to a given fault.
 Protection Systems which in principle are absolutely selective are known
as unit systems.
 Protection Systems in which selectivity is relative are non-unit systems.
 Examples of the former are differential protection and frame leakage
protection, and of the latter current time graded protection and distance
protection

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Speed of Operation
 Protective relays are required to be quick acting due to the
following reasons:
 Critical clearing time should not be exceeded.
 Electrical apparatus may be damaged if they are made to carry
fault currents for long.
 A persistent fault will lower the voltage resulting in crawling
and overloading of industrial drives.
 The shorter the time a fault is allowed to persist the more load
can be transferred between given points on the power systems
without loss of synchronism.
 Figure shows typical values of power which can be transmitted
as a function of fault clearing times for various types of fault.
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Speed of Operation

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Discrimination
 Protection must be sufficiently sensitive to operate reliably under minimum
fault conditions for a fault within its own zone while remaining stable under
maximum load or through fault conditions.
 A relay should be able to distinguish between a fault and an overload. In
the case of transformers the inrush of magnetizing current may be
comparable to the fault current, being 5 to 7 times the full load current.
 The relay should not operate for inrush currents. In interconnected systems,
there will be power swings, which should also be ignored by the relay.
 This discrimination between faults and over-currents may either be an
inherent characteristic of the relay or may be achieved by connecting
auxiliary devices like the minimum voltage relay.
 It may be noted that the word discrimination is sometimes used to include
selectivity

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Classification of Relays
Based on the application or actuating quantity
Over current/Overvoltage/Power /Frequency
Based on the technology used

Electromagnetic/Static/Numeric

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Electromagnetic Relay
Definition: Electromagnetic relays are those relays which

operates on the principle of electromagnetic attraction.
 It is a type of a magnetic switch which uses the
electromagnet for creating a magnetic field.
The magnetic field is then used for opening and closing
the switch and for performing the mechanical operation.

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Types of an Electromagnetic Relay
By their working principle, the electromagnetic relay is
mainly classified into two types.
These are
Electromagnetic Attraction Relay
Electromagnetic Induction Relay

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Electromagnetic Attraction Relay
In this relay, the armature is attracted to the pole of a

magnet.
The electromagnetic force exerted on the moving element
is proportional to the square of the current flow through
the coil.
This relay responds to both the alternating and direct
current.

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For AC quantity the electromagnetic force developed
is given as

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The equation shows that the electromagnetic relay consists

two components
one constant independent of time and another dependent
upon time and pulsating at double supply frequency.
This double supply frequency produces noise and hence
damage the relay contacts.

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The difficulty of a double frequency supply is overcome by
splitting the flux developing in the electromagnetic relay.
These fluxes were acting simultaneously but differ in time
phase.
Thus the resulting deflecting force is always positive and
constant. The splitting of fluxes is achieved by using the
electromagnet having a phase shifting networks or by
putting shading rings on the poles of an electromagnet.
The electromagnetic attraction relay is the simplest type of
relay which includes a plunger (or solenoid), hinged
armature, rotating armature (or balanced) and moving iron
polarised relay.
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Balanced Beam Relay
In such type of relay two quantities are compared because
the electromagnetic force developed varies as the square
of the ampere-turn.
 The ratio of an operating current for such relay is low.
If the relay is set for fast operation, then it will tend to
overreach on a fast operation.

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Balanced Beam Relay

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Hinged armature relay
The sensitivity of the relay can be increased for DC
operation by adding the permanent magnet.
This relay is also known as the polarised moving relay.

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Hinged armature relay

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Electromagnetic Induction Relay
The electromagnetic relay operates on the principle of
a split-phase induction motor.
 The initial force is developed on the moving element that
may be disc or another form of the rotor of the non-
magnetic moving element.
The force is developed by the interaction of
electromagnetic fluxes with eddy current, that is induced
in the rotor by these fluxes

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Electromagnetic Induction Relay
The different type of structure has been used for

obtaining the phase difference in the fluxes.
 These structures are
Shaded pole structure
Watt-hour meter or double winding structure
Induction cup structure.

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This coil is usually energised by current flowing in the

single coil wound on a magnetic structure containing an air
gap.
The air-gap fluxes produce by the initializing current is
split into two flux displace in time-space and by a shaded
ring.
 The shaded ring is made up of the copper ring that
encircles the part of the pole face of each pole.

38

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The disc is made up of aluminium. The inertia of the
aluminium disc is very less.
 Hence they need less deflecting torque for its movement.
The two rings have the current induced in them by the
alternating flux of the electromagnetic.
The magnetic field develops from the current produces the
flux in the portion of the iron ring surrounded by the ring
to lag in phase by 40° to 50° behind the flux in the un
shaded portion of the pole.

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Watt-hour Meter Structure
This structure consists E shape electromagnet and a U

shape electromagnet with a disc-free to rotate in between
them.
 The phase displacement between the fluxes produced by
the electromagnet is obtained by the flux generated by
the two magnets having different resistance and
inductance for the two circuits.

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42
The E-shaped electromagnet carries the two windings
the primary and the secondary.
The primary current was carrying the relay current
I1 while the secondary winding is connected to the
windings of the U-shaped electromagnet.

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 The primary winding carries relay current I 1 while the secondary
current induces the emf in the secondary and so circulate the
current I2 in it.
 The flux φ1 induces in the E shed magnet, and the flux φ induces in
the U-shaped magnet.
 These fluxes induced in the upper and lower magnetic differs in
phase by angle θ which will develop a driving torque on the disc
proportional to φ1φ sinθ.
 The most important feature of the relay is that opening can control
their operation or close the secondary winding circuit.
 If the secondary winding is opened, then no torque will be
developed, and thus relay can be made inoperative.
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Induction Cup Relay
The relay which works on the principle of

electromagnetic induction is known as the induction cup
relay.
The relay has two or more electromagnet which is
energized by the relay coil.
The static iron core is placed between the electromagnet
as shown in the figure

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Induction Cup Relay

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Induction Cup Relay
The coil which is wound on the electromagnet generates

the rotating magnetic field. Because of the rotating
magnetic field, the current induces inside the cup.
Thus, the cup starts rotating. The direction of rotation of
the cup is same as that of the current.
The more torque is produced in the induction cup relay as
compared to the shaded and watt meter type relay.
The relay is fast in operation and their operating time is
very less approximately 0.01 sec.

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Limitations of Electromagnetic
relays
• Low speed of operation.
• Change in characteristics over a period due to ageing effect.
• Component failure leading to relay failure.
• Relay is Bulky
• Imposes high burden on CT
• No fault data available except phase indication.

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STATIC RELAY
• The essential components of static relays are shown in fig. The

output of CT and PT are not suitable for static components so
they are brought down to suitable level by auxiliary CT and
PT.
• Then auxiliary CT output is given to rectifier. Rectifier
rectifies the relaying quantity i.e., the output from a CT or PT
or a Transducer

49
STATIC RELAY
• The rectified output is supplied to a measuring unit

comprising of comparators, level detectors, filters, logic
circuits.
• The output is actuated when the dynamic input (i.e., the

relaying quantity) attains the threshold value.
• This output of the measuring unit is amplified by amplifier

and fed to the output unit device, which is usually an electro-
magnetic one. The output unit energizes the trip coil only
when relay operates.
50 Subject: PS-II, Instructor: Dr. Kusum Tharani

Advantages of Static Relays
1. The power consumption in case of static relays is usually much lower than that in case of
their electromechanical equivalents.
2. Hence burden on the instrument transformers (CTs and PTs) is reduced and their accuracy
is increased, possibility of use of air-gaped CTs is there, problems arising out of CT
saturation are eliminated, and there is an overall reduction in the cost of CTs and PTs.
3. Quick response, long life, shock proof, fewer problems of maintenance, high reliability
and a high degree of accuracy.
4. Absence of moving contacts and associated problems of arcing, contact bounce, erosion,
replacement of contacts etc.
5. Quick reset action—a high reset value and absence of overshoot can be easily achieved
because of the absence of mechanical inertia and thermal storage.
6. There is no effect of gravity on operation of static relays and, therefore, they can be
installed in vessels, aircrafts etc.
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Advantages of Static Relays
7. Ease of providing amplification enables greater sensitivity to be obtained.

8. Use of printed (or integrated) circuits avoids wiring errors and facilitates rationalization of
batch production.
9. The basic building blocks of semiconductor circuitry permit a greater degree of sophistication
in the shaping of operating characteristics, enabling the practical realization of relays with
threshold characteristics more closely approaching the ideal requirements.
10. By combining various functional circuits, several conventional relays can be substituted by
a single static relay. For example a single static relay can provide overcurrent, under-voltage,
single phasing, short-circuit protection in an ac motor by incorporating respective functional
blocks.
11. Static relays are very compact. A single static relay can perform several functions.
12. The characteristics of static relays are accurate and superior. They can be altered within
certain range as per protection needs.
52
Limitations of Static Relays
1. Auxiliary dc supply is required.
2. Semiconductor components are sensitive to electrostatic discharges.
3. Static relays are sensitive to voltage spikes or voltage transients. Special

measures (such as use of filter circuits in relays, screening of cables
connected to the relays etc.,) are taken to avoid such problem.
4. The characteristics of static relays are influenced by ambient temperature

and ageing. However, temperature compensation can be provided by using
thermistor circuits.
5. The reliability of the system depends upon a large number of small

components and their electrical connections.
53
Limitations of Static Relays
6.The static relays have low short-time overload capacity compared with electromagnetic relays.
7. Static relays are costlier, for simple and single function, than their equivalent electromechanical
counterparts. But for multi-function protection, static relays prove economical.
8.The production technology of plug-in-type static relays on the panel permits the manufacturing
of standard relays in mass and the customer’s needs can be met quickly by incorporating
required relay units on the panel. Static relays with ICs are cheaper than those with discrete
components.
9. Static relay characteristic is likely to be affected by the operation of the output device but this is
not so in case of electromagnetic relay because its operation is based on the comparison
between operating torques/forces.
10.Highly trained personnel are required for their servicing.
11. Static relays are not very robust in construction and easily affected by surrounding
interference.
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Need for Comparators
 The application of a particular relay is governed by its characteristics and other
factors such as accuracy, operating time, reliability, burden, method of setting
adjustment etc.
 The function of a protective relay is to sense any abnormal condition in the
system and send a signal to the breaker which in turn isolates the faulty section
of the feeder from the healthy one.
 The relay does all this by comparing two quantities either in amplitude or in
phase.
 The amplitude or phase relation depends on the conditions of the system and for
a predetermined value of this relation, indicative of a particular type and location
of fault, the relay operates.
 Except in relays, such as overcurrent relays, where only one electrical quantity
overcomes a mechanical quantity such as the restraint from a spring, usually two
electrical quantities are compared.
 The device that makes such comparison is called the comparator and forms the
heart of a protective of any relay is governed by the comparator.
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General Equation for Comparators
Let us first derive the general threshold equation assuming

that there are two input signals S1 and S2 such that when the
phase relationship or magnitude relationship fulfills pre-
determined threshold conditions, tripping is initiated.
The input signals are derived from the system through
instrument transformers (CTs and/or PTs).
Let the two input signals be represented as

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57
Where, A and B are the primary system quantities, K1 and

K3 are the scalar numbers and |K2|and | K4| are the complex
numbers with angles θ2 and θ4 respectively.
Taking A as the reference phasor and phasor B to lag A by
an angle ɸ. Then the above equation can be rewritten as –
S1 = K1 |A| + |K2||B| {cos (θ2 – ɸ) + j sin (θ2 – ɸ)}

S2 = K3|A| + |K4||B| {cos (θ4 – ɸ) + j sin (θ4 – ɸ }

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Block Diagram and Phasor Diagram for Comparator

59
Analysis for Amplitude Comparator

60
Analysis for Amplitude Comparator

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Analysis for Phase Comparator

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Analysis for Phase Comparator
In most of the relays, at least one of the constants K1,
K2, K3 and K4 is zero and two of them are often equal.
Also the angle of the two phasor constants is usually
the same. This makes the practical case relatively
simple.
If θ2 = θ4, the values of r and c in the two cases are
tabulated below:

63
Analysis for Comparators

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Duality between Amplitude and Phase Comparators
It can be shown with the help of phasor diagrams that an

inherent amplitude comparator becomes a phase
comparator and vice-versa if the input quantities to the
comparator are changed to the sum and difference of the
original two input quantities.
Consider the operation of an amplitude comparator with
input signals S1 and S2 such that it operates when |S1| > |
S2|.
If the inputs are changed to |S1 + S2| and |S1 – S2| so that it
operates when |S1 + S2| > |S1 – S2|.
If these quantities are fed to an amplitude comparator, the
comparator essentially compares the phase relation
65
between S1 and S2.

It is observed that the requirement |S1 + S2| < |S1 – S2|
puts a condition on the phase relation between S1 and
S2 i.e. unless the phase difference between original
phasors S1 and S2 exceeds 90°, |S1 + S2| cannot be less
than |S1 – S2|.
So the original amplitude comparator with inputs now |
S1 + S2| and |S1 – S2| is a phase comparator i.e., a
converted phase comparator.
It is to be noted that the phase comparator in case of
static circuits is a cosine comparator as opposed to a sine
comparator in case
Department of Electrical of electromechanical
and Electronics relays
Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi
67
Subject: PS-II, Instructor: KUSUM THARANI
Amplitude comparator
 Amplitude comparator compares the amplitudes of two (or more) input quantities.
 The phase angle between the quantities under comparison (inputs) is not
recognized or noticed by the amplitude comparator.
 If the two input signals are S 1
 and S2 (say S1 the operating and S2 restraining), the amplitude comparator gives
positive output only if –
 S2/S1 < K.
 The function is represented by a circle in the complex plane with its centre at the
origin. This defines the boundary of the marginal operation.
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Static Amplitude Comparator

69
TYPES OF STATIC RELAYS
Static Relays are classified according to the type of the

measuring unit or the comparator as follows:
Electronic relays.
Transductor relays.
Rectifier bridge relays.
Transistor relays.
Hall effect relays.
Gauss effect relays.

70
Electronic Relays
These were the first to be developed in the series of static

relays. They date back to early 1928.
Subsequently a series of electronic circuits for most of the
common types of protective gear relays were developed.
The components used were electronic valves for
measuring unit.

71
Electronic Relays

72
Electronic Relays
 The two basic arrangements one as an amplitude comparator
and another as a phase comparator are shown in Fig.
 In the former case two a.c. quantities to be compared are
rectified and applied in opposition in the control grid circuit of
an electronic tube, so that operation occurs when one quantity
exceeds the other by an amount
 In the latter case one a.c. quantity can be connected to the
control grid of an electronic tube and the other a.c. quantity to
the screen grid of the tube, operation occurs when the two
quantities are in phase.

73
Electronic Relays
Electronic relays offer the following advantages:
 Low burden on CTs and PTs, since the operating power is from an
auxiliary d.c. supply.
 Absence of mechanical inertia and bouncing contacts.
 Fast operation.
 Low maintenance, owing to the absence of moving parts.
 In spite of all these however electronic relays have not met with
general success except for carrier current relaying which has
attained widespread use.
 The major reason is that carrier relaying has accomplished a
highly desirable result not economically feasible by any other
method.
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Static Instantaneous and Definite Time Overcurrent Relays
The block diagram of an instantaneous overcurrent relay is

shown. The same construction may be used for under-
voltage, overvoltage or earth fault relays too.
The secondaries of the line CTs are connected to a
summation circuit (not shown in the figure).
The output of this summation CT is fed to an auxiliary CT,
whose output is rectified, smoothened and supplied to the
measuring unit (level detector).
The measuring unit determines whether the quantity has
attained the threshold value (set value) or not.
When the input to measuring unit is less than the threshold
value, the output of the level detector is zero.
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Static Overcurrent Relay

76
Static Overcurrent Relay
 For an overcurrent relay-
For I input < I threshold ; I output = 0
For I input > I threshold ; I output = Present
 In an actual relay, I threshold can be adjusted.
 After operation of the measuring unit, the output is amplified by the
amplifier. The amplified output is given to the output circuit to cause
trip/alarm.
 If time delay is desired, a timing circuit is introduced before the level
detector.
 Smoothening circuit and filters are introduced in the output of the bridge
rectifier.
 Static overcurrent relay is made in the form of a single unit in which
diodes, transistors, resistors, capacitors etc., are arranged on printed board
and are bolted with epoxy resin
77
Numerical Relays
 As the technology developed the protection devices have also undergone many changes
from a normal fuse to the circuit breaker.
 For years we have been using static relays and magnetic relays for protecting an electrical
network, now when the microprocessors got evolved the protection devices also got
evolved.
 Numeric relays are the evolved form of a static and electromagnetic relay.
 They are basically a device used for measuring electric parameters in an electrical
network and convert them into numerical data which undergoes mathematical and logical
analysis to decide on tripping an electrical network.
 The main purpose of a numerical relay is to protect the electrical network from
unexpected fault currents. Numerical relays are mostly preferred because of their versatile
characteristics.
 A single Numerical relay can monitor multiple parameters like current, voltage,
Frequency, onset time, offset time, etc.
 And the same relay can be used for analyzing and monitoring multiple faults such as over
current, over fluxing, different current and more.
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Block Diagram for
Microprocessor based Relay

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Advantages
Efficient and Reliable
Highly Accurate
Very Fast
Programmable in nature
Economical for large systems

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Numerical Relay Working and Hardware Architecture
The numeric relay can be called as a miniature computer

as they both have similar hardware architecture with
slight differences.
Their architecture can look confusing but we can just
simplify whole architecture into these major categories
Input Module
CPU
Memory
Multiplexer and Analog to digital converter
Output module
Digital input/Communication module
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Hardware Architecture of Numerical Relay

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Description of Hardware Architecture
 Input Module
The Power system operates with analog parameters. The high powered
analog signals are stepped down with current transformer and Potential
transformer.
It is fed to the numeric relay using low pass filter.
The low pass filter is used to eliminate the noisy signal in the system
due to corona or induction effect from a nearby high voltage line.
 CPU
Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the brain of the system, which
processes all data protection algorithm and digital inputs and their
filtering.

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 Memory
 Numerical relay has two memories, RAM and ROM.
 Random Access Memory (RAM) is responsible for retaining the input data to the
relay and processing the data during compilation.
 Read-Only Memory (ROM) is the storage unit of the relay. It stores the software
needed and other data related to event and disturbance.
 The Storage unit is a must feature because it helps in analyzing and
troubleshooting any event during the occurrence of a fault.
 Multiplexer and Analog to digital converter

 The CPU can only process digital data but the input from the current transformer
and potential transformer are analog.
 Hence the Analog to digital converter is used to convert the signal to digital data.
 In case multiple analog signals need to be converted a multiplexer is used for
selecting the required analog input for conversion.
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 Output Module
 The output module is the digital contacts that are actuated when a
trip command is given by the CPU.
 These digital contacts are pulses that are generated as a response
signal. The response time can be changed according to the
application of the relay.
 Digital input/Communication module

 As of in a computer, a relay also has serial and parallel ports for
connecting the relay with control and communication systems in the
substation.
 The Auxiliary relays can be connected to the digital output contacts
to extend theof tripping
Department Electrical andcommand.
Electronics Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi
85
Types of Numerical Relays
The numerical relays are used for various types of

protection and they are classified on the basis of
characteristics, Logic, Actuation parameter and application.
Although they are classified under different conditions their
purpose remains the same, to activate the trip system when
there is a fault in the electrical network.
Based on Logic
Based On Characteristics
Based on actuating parameters
Based on Application

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Based on Logic
 These classifications are made on the basis of logical operation of the relay
 Over Current/ Earth Fault: When excessive current flows through a system
it will trip the circuit breaker. Used for transformer and feeder protection.
 Directional overcurrent: It is operated when the fault drives the power to
flow in a particular direction (Opposite to the specified direction). Used in the
protection of Bus bar, Generator, and Transformers.
 Differential: The differential relay is set to trip when the phase difference of
two or more identical electrical quantities exceeds the specified value. It can
Protect Transformers and Generators from localized faults.
 Under/ Over Voltage: The voltage in an electric network might drop or rise
below or above a fixed value, the circuit is tripped under such conditions.
 Distance: This type of relay is operated based on the distance between the
impedance of the fault and the position of the relay. They are mostly used in
the protection of transmission lines.

87
Based On Characteristics
These classifications are based on their tripping property

Instantaneous relay: Activate the tripping immediately after
the occurrence of a fault, there will be no time delay.
Definite time relay: Activated only if the fault remains until a
specific time.
Inverse time relays with definite minimum time (IDMT):
These Relays are mostly used in transmission lines. If the line
current exceeds the safe value, circuit breaker gets triggered.
Voltage restraint over current relay: The relay is activated
only if both the under-voltage and overcurrent conditions
occur at the same time.
88
Based on actuating parameters
Current relays
Voltage relays
Frequency relays
Power relays Etc.

89
Comparison between Electromechanical/Static and
Numerical Relays
Characteristic El. Mech. Relay Static Relay Numerical Relay
Technology Standard 1st generation relays. 2nd generation relays. Present generation relays.
Operating Principle They use principle of In this relays transistors and IC’s They use microprocessor. Within
electromagnetic principle. been used built software with predefined
values
Measuring elements/ Hardware Induction disc, electromagnets, R, L, C, transistors, analogue ICs Microprocessors, digital ICs, digital
induction cup, balance beam comparators signal processors
Measuring method Electrical qtys converted Level detects,comparison A/D conversion, numerical
intomechanical force, torque withreference value in analogue algorithm techniques
comparator
Surrounding Environment Depend upon gravitation and the Their value may vary with respect Remain Stable
value changes to the surrounding to temperature also.
magnetic fields also.
Relay Size Bulky Small Compact
Timing function Mechanical clock works, dashpot Static timers Counter
Time of Accuracy Temp. dependant Temp. dependant Stable
Reliability High Low High
Characteristics Limited Wide Wide
CT Burden 8 to 10 VA 1 VA < 0.5 VA

90
Different types of Relays
based on Actuating quantity
Overcurrent Relays
Distance Relays
Differential Relays

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Overcurrent Relays
The basic element in overcurrent protection is an
overcurrent relay.
The American National Standards Institute(ANSI)device
number is 50 for an instantaneous overcurrent (IOC) or
 Definite Time overcurrent (DTOC) and 51 for the
Inverse Definite Minimum Time.

92
Overcurrent Relays
There are five types of overcurrent relay based on
current-time characteristics. They are:–
1. Definite-time overcurrent relay
2. Inverse-time overcurrent relay
3. Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay
4. Inverse Definite Minimum Time Overcurrent
(I.D.M.T) Relay
5. Very Inverse-time Overcurrent Relay
6. Extremely Inverse-time Overcurrent Relay

93
Overcurrent Relays
There are five types of overcurrent relay based on
current-time characteristics. They are:–
1. Definite-time overcurrent relay
2. Inverse-time overcurrent relay
3. Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay
4. Inverse Definite Minimum Time Overcurrent
(I.D.M.T) Relay
5. Very Inverse-time Overcurrent Relay
6. Extremely Inverse-time Overcurrent Relay

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Definite-time Overcurrent Relay
In a definite-time overcurrent relay, the relay will

operate when the current reaches its pick-up value and
predetermined time. Here, the time for tripping when
the current exceeds the pickup value is set and
programmed.
The operating time is always constant, irrespective of
the magnitude of the current above the pick-up value.
An intentional time-delay mechanism is provided in
the relay unit in order to set the definite operating time.

95
Time-current characteristic
curve

96
Inverse-time Overcurrent Relay
In inverse-time overcurrent relay, the relay operates

only when the current exceeds its pick-up value. The
operating time in this type of relay depends on the
magnitude of the operating current.
Here, if the operating time decreases as the current
increases and vice-versa.

97
Time-current characteristic
curve

98
Instantaneous Overcurrent
Relay
An instantaneous relay operates in a definite time and
operates as soon as the current reaches the preset value.
It is sometimes known as “high set” or “high speed” for
its fast operation that works less than 0.1 seconds.
Here the operating time is constant and doesn’t depend
on the magnitude of the current.

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Time-current characteristic curve

100
Inverse Definite Minimum Time
Overcurrent (I.D.M.T) Relay
I.D.M.T relay gives an inverse-time current characteristic at

lower values of the fault current and a definite-time
characteristic at higher values of the fault current. I.D.M.T.
relays are mainly used for the protection of distribution lines.
Generally, when the plug setting multiplier is below 10, then
inverse characteristics is obtained. And, when the values of the
plug setting multiplier are between 10 and 20, then the line in
the graph tends to become a straight line, which will be towards
the definite-time characteristic.

101

102
A very inverse-time overcurrent gives more inverse
characteristics than that of a normal inverse relay or the
I.D.M.T. relay. In very inverse-time overcurrent, time-
current characteristic lies between a characteristic of
I.D.M.T (curve ‘a’) and extremely inverse characteristic
(curve ‘c’), as shown in the figure. The very inverse relay
is mostly preferred when the I.D.M.T relay fails to operate.
The Very inverse time-current relays are preferred where
there is a substantial reduction of fault current as the
distance from the power source increases. Due to the steep
characteristic of ‘very inverse-time overcurrent relay,’ it is
more effective with ground faults.

The time-current characteristic of an extremely inverse
relay is I^2t = K. In general, the extremely inverse
relay characteristic is not good enough to be graded
with fuses. But with electromechanical relay, it is good
to use extremely inverse relays to grade with fuses.
An extremely inverse relay is used for the protection
of machines against overheating. Therefore, this type
of relays is used for the protection of power
transformers, alternators, earthing transformers,
expensive cables, railways trolley wires, etc.

104
Distance Relays
 Distance protection is the name given to the protection, whose action
depends upon the distance of the feeding point to the fault.
 The time of operation of such a protection is a function of the ratio of
voltage and current i.e., impedance. This impedance between the relay
and the fault depends upon the electrical distance between them.
 Distance relays differ in principle from other forms of protection in
their performance and is not governed by the magnitude of the current
or the voltage in the protected circuit but rather on the ratio of these
two quantities.
 Distance relays are actually double actuating quantity relays with one
coil energized by voltage and the other coil by current. The current
element produces a positive or pick-up torque while the voltage
element produces a negative or reset torque. The relay operates only
when the V/I ratio falls below a predetermined value (or set value).
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Distance Relays
During a fault on a transmission line the fault current
increases and the voltage at the fault point decreases. The
V/I ratio is measured at the location of CTs and PTs.
The voltage at PT location depends on the distance between
PT and the fault. If the fault is nearer, measured voltage is
lesser and if the fault is farther, measured voltage is more.
 Hence assuming constant fault impedance each value of
V/I measured from relay location corresponds to distance
between relaying point and the fault along the line. Hence
such protection is called the distance protection or
impedance protection.
106
Distance Relays
Distance protection is non-unit type protection, the
protection zone is not exact. The distance protection is
high speed protection and is simple to apply.
It can be employed as a primary as well as backup
protection.
 It can be employed in carrier aided distance schemes and
in auto-reclosing schemes. Distance protection is very
commonly used in protection of transmission lines.

107
Types of Distance Relays
Impedance relays
Reactance relays
Admittance or mho relays.

108
Impedance Relay

109
Impedance Relay

110
I-V Characteristic

111
Characteristics on R-X Diagram

112
Reactance Relay

113
Reactance Relay

114
Mho Relay
A mho Relay is a high-speed relay and is also known as

the admittance relay. In this relay operating torque is
obtained by the volt-amperes element and the controlling
element is developed due to the voltage element. It
means a mho relay is a voltage controlled directional
relay.
A mho relay using the induction cup structure is shown in
the figure below. The operating torque is developed by
the interaction of fluxes due to pole 2, 3, and 4 and the
controlling torque is developed due to poles 1, 2 and 4.

115
Mho Relay

116
Mho Relay
If the spring controlling effect is indicated by –K3, the
torque equation becomes

117
Mho Relay
Where Θ and τ are defined as positive when I lag
behind V. At balance point, the net torque is zero, and
hence the equation becomes. If the spring controlled
effect is neglected i.e., k3 = 0.

118
Operating Characteristic of Mho Relay
 The operating characteristic of the mho relay is shown in the figure below.
The diameter of the circle is practically independent of V and I, except at a
very low magnitude of the voltage and current when the spring effect is
considered, which causes the diameter to decrease. The diameter of the
circle is expressed by the equation as ZR= K1 / K2 = ohmic setting of the
relay

119
Mho Relay
The relay operates when the impedance seen by the
relay within the circle. The operating characteristic
showed that circle passes through the origin, which
makes the relay naturally directional.
The relay because of its naturally directional
characteristic requires only one pair of contacts which
makes it fast tripping for fault clearance and reduces
the VA burdens on the current transformer.

120
Differential Relay
 The principle of operation of Differential relay is based on a simple
circulating current principle where the difference of the currents of the
two CTs flows through the relay under normal or under faults outside
the protected section.
 Pilot wires are generally necessary between relaying points, and the
provision of these is a major consideration in the application of this
form of protection.
 The relay must be connected at equipotential points on the pilot wires
so the there is no mismatch in the burdens of the CTs.
 In case the connections are not at equipotential points, the heavily
loaded CT will saturate during through fault conditions.
 This results in dissimilarity of voltage and phase angle characteristics
of the CTs producing an out of balance current which causes spurious
operation of the relay. This problem can be tackled in 2 ways .

121 The first is by biasing the relay and the second is by using a high
Differential Relay for External fault

122
Differential Relay for Internal Fault

123
Effect of Biasing
 The effect of the bias is to enable the impedance of the relay operating
circuit to be reduced for a given value of through fault stability.
 The bias is obtained by circulating the through fault secondary current
through an additional winding which exerts a restraining force or bias
on the movement.
 Normally no current flows in the operating coil under through fault
conditions, but owing to imperfect matching of CTs, some spill
current may be present.
 This spill current will flow in the relay operating circuit but will not
cause operation unless the operating bias current ratio for which the
relay is set is exceeded.
 The magnitude of the current to cause operation is not constant but
automatically increases as the circulating current increases and a
definite ratio exists between the two quantities.
124
Percentage Biased Differential Relay

125
Torque Equations for Percentage Differential
Protection
Operating Force
K(I1-I2)No
Restraining Force
K(I1+I2)Nr/2 + S
No = Number of turns of Operating Coil
Nr = Number of turns of Restraining Coil
K = Constant
S= Mechanical Restraint

Operating Condition for Percentage Differential
Relay

127
Difficulties Associated with Differential Protection :
 Difference in Length of Pilot Wires: The power system element
under protection and CTs are located at different places and
normally it is not possible to connect the relay operating coil to
the equi potential points. However, this difficulty can be
overcome by connecting adjustable resistors in series with the
pilot wires.
 CT Ratio Errors during Short Circuits:The CTs used may
have almost equal ratio at normal currents, but during short-
circuit conditions, the primary currents are unduly large and the
ratio errors of CTs on either side differ.
 This is due to (i) inherent difference in characteristic of CTs
arising out of difference in magnetic circuit, saturation conditions
etc. (ii) unequal dc components in the short-circuit currents.

Difficulties Associated with Differential Protection
 Saturation of Magnetic Circuits of CTs under Short-Circuit
Condition: The differential relay of the type explained above is likely to
operate inaccurately with heavy through (i.e., external) faults. The relay
may lose its stability for through faults. This drawback is overcome by
using percentage-differential relay or biased-differential relay.
 Magnetizing Current Inrush at the Switching Instant: When the
power transformer is connected to the supply, a large current (about 6 to
10 times full-load current) inrush takes place. The differential relay
operates due to such inrush current, though the transformer has no fault.
However, this difficulty is overcome by providing harmonic restraint for
the differential relay.
 This relay filters the harmonic component from the inrush current and
supplies it to the restraining coil. The harmonic content of the
magnetizing current is used to obtain restraining torque during
switching-in
Department ofof transformer.
Electrical and Electronics Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi
129
Difficulties Associated with Differential
Protection
Tap-Changing:
Transformer transformation ratio is changed whenever the
taps are changed.
Due to this CT ratios do not match with the new-tap
settings and result in flow of current in pilot wires even
during healthy condition.
However, this problem is also overcome by employing
biased- differential relay.

130
GENERATOR PROTECTION
The generating units, especially the larger ones, are
relatively few in number and higher in individual cost
than most other equipments. Therefore, it is desirable and
necessary to provide protection to cover the wide range of
faults which may occur in the modern generating plant.
Capacity increased from 30MW to 800MW

Therefore it is necessary to-
Open the field, stop the fuel supply to the prime mover
and in some cases apply braking

131
GENERATOR FAULTS
Stator faults
Rotor faults
Abnormal running conditions
1.Loss of excitation
2.Unbalanced loading
3.Overloading
4.Failure of prime mover
5.Overspeeding
6.Overvoltage

132
Failure of prime-mover
When input to the prime-mover fails, the alternator runs as a synchronous motor and draws some
current from the supply system. This motoring conditions is known as ―inverted running.
(a) In case of turbo-alternator sets, failure of steam supply may cause inverted running. If the steam
supply is gradually restored, the alternator will pick up load without disturbing the system. If the
steam failure is likely to be prolonged, the machine can be safely isolated by the control room
attendant since this condition is relatively harmless. There-fore, automatic protection is not
required.
(b) In case of hydro-generator sets, protection against inverted running is achieved by pro-viding
mechanical devices on the water-wheel. When the water flow drops to an insufficient rate to
maintain the electrical output, the alternator is disconnected from the system. Therefore, in this case
also electrical protection is not necessary.
(c) Diesel engine driven alternators, when running inverted, draw a considerable amount of power
from the supply system and it is a usual practice to provide protection against motoring in order to
avoid damage due to possible mechanical seizure.
This is achieved by applying reverse power relays to the alternators which isolate the latter during
their motoring action.
It is essential that the reverse power relays have time-delay in operation in order to prevent
inadvertent tripping during system disturbances caused by faulty synchronising and phase
swinging.
133
Failure of field
The chances of field failure of alternators are

undoubtedly very rare. Even if it does occur, no
immediate damage will be caused by permitting the
alternator to run without a field for a short-period.
 It is sufficient to rely on the control room attendant to
disconnect the faulty alternator manually from the
system bus-bars.
Therefore, it is a universal practice not to provide
†automatic protection against this contingency
134
Overspeeding
The chief cause of overspeed is the sudden loss of all or

the major part of load on the alternator.
Modern alternators are usually provided with
mechanical centrifugal devices mounted on their
driving shafts to trip the main valve of the prime-mover
when a dangerous overspeed occurs.

135
Over-voltage
The field excitation system of modern alternators is so
designed that over-voltage conditions at normal
running speeds cannot occur.
However, overvoltage in an alternator occurs when
speed of the prime-mover increases due to sudden loss
of the alternator load.

136
Stator winding faults
 These faults occur mainly due to the insulation failure
of the stator windings. The main types of stator winding
faults, in order of importance are :
(a) fault between phase and ground
(b) fault between phases
(c) inter-turn fault involving turns of the same phase
winding

137
Stator winding faults
The stator winding faults are the most dangerous and are
likely to cause considerable damage to the expensive
machinery.
 Therefore, automatic protection is absolutely necessary to
clear such faults in the quickest possible time in order to
minimise the extent of damage.
 For protection of alternators against such faults,
differential method of protection (also knows as Merz-Price
system) is most commonly employed due to its greater
sensitivity and reliability.

138
Differential Protection of Alternators
The most common system used for the protection of stator

winding faults employs circulating-current principle.
 In this scheme of protection, currents at the two ends of the
protected section are compared. Under normal operating
conditions, these currents are equal but may become unequal
on the occurrence of a fault in the protected section.
The difference of the currents under fault conditions is
arranged to pass through the operating coil of the relay.
The relay then closes its contacts to isolate protected section
from the system. This form of protection is also known as
Merz-Price circulating current scheme.
139
The schematic arrangement of current differential protection

for a 3-phase alternator shows identical current transformer
pairs CT1 and CT2 placed on either side of each phase of the
stator windings.
The secondaries of each set of current transformers are
connected in star ; the two neutral points and the
corresponding terminals of the two star groups being
connected together by means of a four-core pilot cable.
Thus there is an independent path for the currents circulating
in each pair of current transformers and the corresponding
pilot P
140
Schematic Diagram for Merz Price Protection

141
The relay coils are connected in star, the neutral point being
connected to the current-trans-former common neutral and
the outer ends one to each of the other three pilots. In order
that burden on each current transformer is the same, the
relays are connected across equipotential points of the three
pilot wires and these equipotential points would naturally be
located at the middle of the pilot wires.
The relays are generally of electromagnetic type and are
arranged for instantaneous action since fault should be
cleared as quickly as possible.

142
Stator Inter turn Protection
Merz-price circulating-current system protects against
phase-to-ground and phase-to-phase faults. It does not
protect against turn-to-turn fault on the same phase
winding of the stator.
 It is because the current that this type of fault produces
flows in a local circuit between the turns involved and does
not create a difference between the currents entering and
leaving the winding at its two ends where current
transformers are applied.
 However, it is usually considered unnecessary to provide
protection for inter-turn faults because they invariably
develop into earth-faults.
143

144
 In single turn generator (e.g. large steam-turbine generators), there
is no necessity of protection against inter-turn faults.
 However, inter-turn protection is provided for multi-turn generators
such as hydro-electric generators.
 These generators have double-winding armatures (i.e. each phase
winding is divided into two halves) owing to the very heavy
currents which they have to carry. Advantage may be taken of this
necessity to protect inter-turn faults on the same winding.
 The schematic arrangement of circulating-current and inter-turn
protection of a 3-phase double wound generator shows that the
relays RC provide protection against phase-to-ground and phase-to-
phase faults whereas relays R1 provide protection against inter-turn
faults.
145
Under normal conditions, the currents in the stator windings
S1 and S2 are equal and so will be the currents in the
secondaries of the two CTs.
The secondary current round the loop then is the same at all
points and no current flows through the relay R 1.
 If a short-circuit develops between adjacent turns, say on S 1,
the currents in the stator windings S 1 and S2 will no longer be
equal. Therefore, unequal currents will be induced in
the secondaries of CTs and the difference of these two currents
flows through the relay R1. The relay then closes its contacts to
clear the generator from the system.
146
Stator Overheating Protection
Generally stator overheating is caused by sustained overloads
or by cooling system failure. Overheating because of short-
circuited laminations is very localized, and it is just a matter of
chance whether it can be detected before serious damage is
caused.
It is not practicable to provide overload protection by backup
stator fault overcurrent protection as backup overcurrent
protection is usually set for sensing fault currents and should
not trip for overloads.
 Electrical overcurrent relays cannot sense the winding
temperature accurately because temperature rise depends on
I2Rt and also on cooling. Electrical protection cannot detect
failure of the cooling system.
147

148
 The practice is to embed resistance temperature-detector coils or
thermocouples in the slots below the stator coils of the generators of large
capacity (above 1 MVA) for protection against overheating.
 Enough of such detectors are located at different places in the windings so
that an indication can be obtained of the temperature conditions throughout
the stator.
 Several of the detectors that provide the highest temperature indication are
selected for use with temperature indicator or recorder usually having alarm
contacts, or the detector providing the highest indication may be arranged
to operate a temperature relay to sound alarm.
 Supplementary temperature devices may be provided for monitoring the
cooling system; such devices would give the earliest alarm in the event of
failure of cooling system. But it is usually realized that the stator
temperature detectors and alarm devices are sufficient
149
Rotor Earth Fault Protection
The rotor of the generator is normally unearthed i.e. remain

isolated from the earth and therefore the single fault due to
insulation breakdown will not rise the fault current.
A single fault will not affect the rotor, but if the fault occurs,
continues then it will damage the field winding of the
generator. For a large generator, the rotor earth fault protection
system is used for the protection of the field winding.
When one earth fault occurs in the rotor then it is not
necessary that the system is completely trip, only the relay
indicates that the fault has occurred. So that the generator
should be taken out of service.

150
Methods of Rotor Earth Fault Protection
Rotor Earth Fault Protection By Using High Resistance

In this method, a high resistance is connected across the field
winding of the rotor.
The midpoint of the resistor is grounded through a sensitive
relay. When the fault occurs the relay detect the fault and send
the tripping command to the breaker.
The major disadvantage of such type of system it that it can
detect the fault for most of the rotor circuit except the rotor
centre point.
 This difficulty can be overcome by shifting the tap on the
resistor from centre to somewhere else. Thus, the relay can
detect the midpoint fault of the rotor.
151
Rotor Earth Fault Protection By Using High
Resistance

152
AC and DC Injection Methods for Rotor Earth
Fault Protection
 In this method, alternating current is injected into the field winding circuit
and ground along with a sensitive overvoltage relay and a current limiting
capacitor.
 A single earth fault in the rotor will complete the circuit comprises the
alternating current source, sensitive relay and earth fault. Thus, the earth
fault is sensed by the relay.
 The major disadvantage of such type of system is the leakage current that
flows through the capacitor.
 This current unbalanced the magnetic field and increase the stress on the
magnetic bearing.
 Another disadvantage of alternating current is that the relay cannot pick up
the current that normally flow through the capacitance to the ground.
Thus, care must be taken to avoid resonance between the capacitance and
the relay inductance.
153
Fault Protection

154
Fault Protection
The problem of the AC injection system can be overcome

by using the DC injection method. This method is simple
and has no problem of leakage currents.
The one terminal of the sensitive relay is connected to the
exciter, and the other terminal is connected to the negative
terminal of the DC source.
 The positive terminal of the DC source is grounded. When
the earth fault occurs, the fault current will complete the
circuit path, and the fault is sensed by the relay.

155
Loss of Excitation or Field Failure
During normal operation of the Synchronous Generator or
Alternator excitation to the rotor is provided by the small DC
generator running on the same shaft along with main generator.
When synchronous generator delivering power to the grid or
load it delivers both real power and reactive power to the
system.
 Reactive power is the magnetizing power which helps to deliver
the real power from source to the load and also reactive power
helps to improve the voltage of the system.
 Almost all the loads (except capacitance loads) in the power
system draws reactive power from system. Alternators,
synchronous condensers and capacitor banks connected in the
power systems are the only sources of reactive power.
156
 Real power delivered by the generator (MW output power) is governed by
the prime mover and the Reactive power delivered (MVAR output ) is
governed by the field excitation.
 When field excitation to the synchronous generator is lost then synchronous
generator operates as induction generator and instead of delivering reactive
power it absorbs the reactive power from the system as much as 2 to 4 times
the generator’s rated load.
 However the real power (MW output) delivered by the induction generator
will remain almost the same as this is controlled by the prime mover.
 But loss of generator’s reactive power in the system may cause instability to
the system.
 Also, as alternator is operating as induction generator, high currents are
induced in to the rotor teeth and wedges and may damage the rotor of the
generator. However large alternators are designed to withstand this induced
currents.
157
To detect loss of excitation ,a mho measuring relay is used

at the generator terminals.
Its operating characteristic is arranged as shown in figure
on the next slide.
During the conditions of low excitation or complete loss of
excitation, the equivalent generator impedance falls within
the tripping zone.

158

159
Unbalanced Loading Protection
 Unbalancing in loading produces negative sequence currents in the stator
circuit.
 This negative sequence current produces a reaction field rotating at twice of
synchronous speed with respect to the rotor and hence induce double frequency
current in the rotor.
 This current is quite large and causes overheating in the rotor circuit, especially
in the alternator.
 If any unbalancing occurred due to fault in the stator winding itself, that would
be cleared instantaneously by the differential protection provided in the
generator.
 If the unbalancing is occurred due to any external fault or unbalanced loading in
the system, it may remain undetected or may persist for a significant period of
time depending on the protection coordination of the system.
 These faults then be cleared by installing a negative phase sequence relay with
the characteristics to match the withstand curve of the machine.
160
Unbalanced Loading Protection

161
Restricted Earth Fault Protection of Generator
 Generally Merz-Price protection based on circulating current principle provides the

protection against internal earth faults.
 But for large generators, as there are costly, an additional protection scheme called
restricted earth fault protection is provided.
 When the neutral is solidly grounded then the generator gets completely protected against
earth faults.
 But when neutral is grounded through earth resistance, then the stator windings gets partly
protected against earth faults.
 The percentage of windings protected depends on the value of earthing resistance and the
relay setting.
 In this scheme, the value of earth resistance, relay setting, current rating of earth
resistance must be carefully selected.
 The earth faults are rare near the neutral point as the voltage of neutral point with respect
to earth is very less. But when earth fault occurs near the neutral point then the insufficient
voltage across the fault drivers very low fault current than the pick up current of relay coil.
 Hence the relay coil remains unprotected in this scheme. Hence it is called restricted earth
fault protection. It is usual practice to protect 85% of the winding.
162
Restricted Earth Fault Protection

163
 Consider that earth fault occurs on phase B due to breakdown of its insulation to earth, as
shown in the Fig.
 The fault current If will flow through the core, frame of machine to earth and complete the
path through the earthing resistance. The C.T. secondary current I s flows through the
operating coil and the restricted earth fault relay coil of the differential protection.
 The setting of restricted earth fault relay and setting of overcurrent relay are independent of
each other. Under this secondary current Is, the relay operates to trip the circuit breaker. The
voltage Vbx is sufficient to drive the enough fault current I f when the fault point x is away
from the neutral point.
 If the fault point x is nearer to the neutral point then the voltage V bx is small and not
sufficient to drive enough fault current If. And for this If, relay can not operate.
 Thus part of the winding from the neutral point remains unprotected. To overcome this, if
relay setting is chosen very low to make it sensitive to low fault currents, then wrong
operation of relay may result.
 The relay can operate under the conditions of heavy through faults, inaccurate C.T.s,
saturation of C.T.s etc. Hence practically 15% of winding from the neutral point is kept
unprotected, protecting the remaining 85% of the winding against phase to earth faults.

Effect of Earth Resistance on % of Winding
Unprotected
Let us see the effect of earth resistance on the % of the
winding which remains unprotected.
 Consider the earth resistance R used to limit earth fault as
shown in the Fig.

165
Effect of Earth Resistance on % of Winding Unprotected
 The value of the resistance R limits the earth fault current.

 If the resistance R is very small i.e. the neutral is almost solidly grounded,
then the fault current is very high. But high fault currents are not desirable
hence small R is not preferred for the large machines.
 Now higher the value of earth resistance R, less is the earth fault current
and less percentage of winding gets protected. Large percentage of winding
remains unprotected.
 Let V= Full line to neutral voltage
I = Full load current of largest capacity generator
R = Earth resistance
The value of the resistance R is,
R = V/I
 And the percentage of winding unprotected is given by

166
Effect of Earth Resistance on % of Winding
Unprotected
Where
Io = Maximum operating current in the primary of C.T.
If relay setting used is 15% then Io is 15% of full load
current of the largest machine and so on.
Greater percentage of windings of small capacity
machines running parallel get protected

167
Numerical Problems
Example 1 : A generator is protected by restricted earth fault protection. The generator ratings
are 13.2 kV, 10 MVA. The percentage of winding protected against phase to ground fault is
85%. The relay setting is such that it trips for 20% out of balance. Calculate the resistance
to be added in the neutral to ground connection.
 Solution : The given values,
VL = 13.2 kV Rating = 10 MVA
From rating, calculate the full load current,
I = Rating in VA / (√3 VL) = (10x106)/(√3 x 13.2 x 103)
= 437.386 A
Relay setting is 20% out of balance i.e. 20% of the rated current activates the relay.
Io = 437.386 x (20/100) = 87.477 A
= Minimum operating current
V = Line to neutral voltage = VL/√3
= (13.2 x 103)/√3 = 7621.02 V
% of winding unprotected = 15% as 85% is protected
... 15 = (RIo/V) x 100
... = ((R x 87.477)/7621.02) x 100
... R = 13.068 Ω
168
Numerical Problems
 Example 2 : A star connected 3 phase, 12 MVA, 11 kV alternator has a phase reactance of 10%. It is protected by
Merz-Price circulating current scheme which is set to operate for fault current not less than 200 A. Calculate the
value of earthing resistance to be provided in order to ensure that only 15% of the alternator winding remains
unprotected.
 Solution : The given values are,
VL = 11 kV Rating = 12 MVA
Rating = √3 VL IL
... 12 x 106= √3 x 11 x 103 x IL
... IL = (12 x 106)/ (√3 x 11 x 103)
= 629.8366 A = I = rated current
V = VL/√3 = (11 x 103)/√3 = 6350.8529 V
% Reactance = (IX /V) x 100
Where X = reactance per phase
and I = rated current
..
.
10 = (629.8366X / 6350.82529 ) x 100
..
.
X = 1.0083 Ω
. . Reactance of unprotected winding
.
= (% of unprotected winding) x (X)

= (15/100) x 1.0083
= 0.1512 Ω
v = Voltage induced in unprotected winding
= (15/100) x V = 0.15 x 6350.8529

169
Numerical Problems
 = 952.6279 V
i = Fault current
= 200 A
Z = Impedance offered to the fault
= v/i = 952.6279/200
= 4.7631 Ω ...........(1)
Z = r + j (reactance of unprotected winding)
Z = r + j (0.1512) Ω
... │Z│= √(r2 + 0.15122) .............(2)
Equation (1) and (2),
4.7631 = √(r2 + 0.15122)
... 22.6875 = r2 + 0.02286
... r2 = 22.6646
... r = 4.7607 Ω
This is the earthing resistance required
170
Motor Protection
The motors acts as the important load in the power system
as they compose mostly 90% of the loads. The protection
of these apparatus becomes very important.
The motors that are taken into consideration are
synchronous and induction motors.

171
Types of Faults
The faults that occur mostly in the motor are almost

similar to that of the generators.
The faults can be classified as:
(a) Stator Faults
(b) Rotor Faults
(c) Overloads
(d) Unbalanced supply voltages including single phasing
(e) Under voltage
(f) Reverse or open phase starting
(g) Loss of synchronism
172
Protection of Motors
ABNORMAL CONDITION PROTECTION
1.Overload 1.Thermal Overload Relay

2.Inverse Overcurrent Relay
3.Miniature Circuit Breaker
2.Phase Fault/Earth Fault 1.HRC Fuse

2.Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay
3.Differential Protection
3.Undervoltage Under voltage Relay

173
4.Unbalance Voltage Negative Phase Sequence Relay
5.Reverse Phase Sequence Phase Reversal Protection
6.Single phasing Thermal Overload Relay

174
7.Stalling 1.Thermal Relay

2.Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay
8.Rotor faults 1.Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay

175
Stator Protection
 The faults that occur in the stator can be either between phases or to the
earth. The protection of the motors against these faults can be done by the
help of overcurrent tripping device which would give an inverse time-
current characteristics.
 Phase fault protections are provided by two high-set instantaneous relay
elements; the current setting is chosen above the maximum starting
current.
 Earth fault protection is provided in a motor operating on an earthed
neutral system by using a simple instantaneous relay having a setting of
approximately 30% of the full load current.
 Since the earth fault relay shouldn’t trip at the initial switching due to CT
saturation of high starting current, so the voltage setting of the relay is
increased by inserting a stabilizing resistance in series with it. The scheme
can be described as below
176
Induction Motor-Protection Relay

177
Rotor Protection
Any unbalance in the supply or in the loading pattern will

cause high amount of negative sequence current in the stator.
This induces high frequency currents in the rotor circuit
also. The frequency of this current is (2-s) times the normal
frequency.
The heating value of the negative sequence current is high as
compared to positive sequence current, which is
proportional to (2-s) f (approximately 100 Hz) a.c. resistance
value.
Hence motor protection must be taken into account the
allowable voltage unbalance without overheating.
178
Overload Protection
The overload protection of the motor is designed so as to

match the heating curve of the motor. The motor must not
be allowed for most of the time for heating.
For this reason the characteristics of the relay must not be
more than the heating characteristics of the motor for
protection.
 The protection must also have the capability to adjust its
characteristics and should not allow the motor to restart
until the motor winding temperature is high.
 For this reason the IDMT relay is best suited for this
purpose.
179
Overload Protection

180
Unbalance and Single Phasing Protection
An unbalance in the system causes the negative sequence

currents to flow in the motor. This would result in
overheating of the machine windings.
Unbalanced loads or accidental opening of one phase of
the supply (single phasing) depending on the load still
keeps the motor running with the induction of negative
sequence in the motor.
For star connected motors the unbalance can be protected
by two overload elements. For delta connected motors such
arrangement is satisfactory when the motor is running for
more than 70% of the full load.
181
 A better scheme for detecting unbalance in motors is by the way of using

bimetal strips as explained below:
 In this arrangement, the bimetal relay has two slides S1 and S2 such that
the slider S1 is moved by the deflection of the bimetal strips, whereas the
slider S2 is kept in position due to non-bending of the bimetal strips.
 On symmetrical loading all the three bimetallic strips bend equally and
both sliders move equally in the same direction by distance d thereby
initiating the tripping.
 When there is a single phasing in the system, so that phase remains cold
while the other two phases gets overloaded. This results in bending of
these two phases while the other remains fixed.
 Hence the slider S1 moves accordingly while the slider S2 is held by
bimetal
strip of the cold phase. This bending initiates the tripping of the relay. Thus,
the bimetal relay responds accordingly in case of single phasing.
182
Bimetal Relay with Single Phasing trip feature

183
In case of large motors the use of bimetal relay becomes

sluggish because of the level of fault current being high. In
this case we make the use of thermistors which causes the
tripping action due to the change in resistance.
The figure illustrates the use of an over temperature
protective scheme for a three phase over DOL starting type
induction motor which has the NTC type thermistors
connected in it.

184
Temperature Operated Scheme for large
motors

185
Reverse Phase Protection
The direction of rotation of the motor changes if the phase

sequence is changed.
 In some motors this becomes very important. In order to
ensure the direction of rotation an induction disc, poly
phase voltage relay is used to protect the motor from
starting when there is a mismatch of the sequence.
Here the torque is proportional to the sine product of two
voltages.
 So when there is a mismatch of sequence, there would be
no torque and restrains the motor from operating.

186
TRANSFORMER PROTECTION
Transformer Protection
Nature of Transformer Faults

Power Transformers generally develop rare faults as it is
static, totally enclosed and oil immersed but if these faults
sustain the results may be serious unless the transformer is
disconnected.
The faults that generally occur in the transformer can be
divided as:
1. Faults in auxiliary equipment which is a part of the
transformer
2. Faults in the transformer winding and connections
3. Overloads and external short circuits.
188
Faults in Auxiliary Equipment
 The detection of faults in auxiliary equipment is necessary to prevent

ultimate failure of the main transformer windings. In these the
components are
(i) Transformer oil: Oil is used as an insulator in transformer. So when low
oil is present the live parts and the bushing leads gets exposed which are
supposed to be beneath the oil. Oil level can be determined by the means
of alarm indicators for immediate attention.
(ii) Gas cushion: The presence of oxygen or moisture may lead to
deterioration of the transformer oil. Hence exclusion of this presence is
necessary. Since the operating pressure varies within the tank, hence
sealing of the tank is not an option. Pressure indicators and conservators
are used to counter the expansion and contraction of oil. Whereas silica
gel is provided in the breathing vent to absorb the moisture content.
Sometimes a nitrogen cylinder is provided to provide an inert atmosphere
maintaining the pressure between 0.5 and 0.8 atm.
189
Faults in Auxiliary Equipment
(iii) Oil pumps and forced air fans: The top oil temperature
normally gives the indication of the load on the transformer.
A rise in temperature would indicate an overloading situation or due
to the fault in cooling system thermometer with alarm contacts
will indicate the temperature rise in oil due to any of these faults.
(iv) Core and winding insulations: These faults can turn into major
faults if not taken care of. Insulation failures may develop if
(a) The insulation of the laminations and core bolts may be of poor
quality.
(b) Poor quality of insulation between windings or between winding
and the core.
(c) Badly made joints or connections.
190
Winding Faults
Electrical Faults that can cause immediate serious damage and

are determined by the presence of unbalanced current or
voltage may be divided into following classes:
(i) Faults between adjacent turns or parts of coils such as
phase-to-phase faults on the HV and LV external terminals or
on the winding itself or short circuits between turns of HV
and LV windings.
(ii) Faults to ground or across complete windings such as
phase-to-earth faults on either HV or LV side.

191
Differential Protection of Transformers
 The best way of protection of any apparatus against an internal fault

is by the method of differential protection scheme since it covers the
apparatus’ zone of protection.
 So for a transformer having ratings of 5 MVA and above, the
differential scheme serves as an important protection against internal
phase-to-phase and phase-to-earth faults.
 Any fault in the protected part would result in the deviation of the
current intensities at the input and output. So the result of this
unbalance current can be employed for the tripping of the relay.
 For this reason the differential scheme combines the characteristics
of selectivity and highest tripping time of the relay. A particular
differential scheme is given below for a three-phase star delta
transformer.
192

193
For the relay to detect 0 spill current in normal operation,

the currents incoming from both the CTs should be in direct
opposition.
Since in a star delta transformer the line currents have a
displacement of 30˚, so the CTs have to be connected in
delta on the star side of the transformer and in star for the
delta side to avoid any spill current through relay in normal
operation.
Another advantage of this connection is the avoiding of
triplet harmonics to appear on the line currents due to delta
windings.
194
Problems Encountered in Differential Protection
of Transformer
 Even though setting of the ratios are done the scheme also suffers from drawbacks
in it like
(i) Unmatched characteristics of CTs: The differential scheme employed for
protection fails in the case of different CT ratio characteristics. Since the
saturation characteristics are different, if they are not avoided would result in
appreciable amount of spill current flowing through the relay.
(ii) Ratio change as a result of tapping: Most of the power transformers are provided
with a tap changing equipment used for altering the turns ratio.It is impracticable
to change the CT ratio for compensating this effect of tap changers. Biased relay
can be employed for the overall protection of variable-ratio transformers.
(iii) Magnetizing Inrush current: When the transformer is re-energized, the transient
inrush of the magnetizing current flowing is as high as ten times the full load
current as it depends on the flux trapped in the core of the transformer and the
instant of the voltage cycle at which it is switched. Even though it’s not a faulty
condition, but depending on the magnitude of the current the differential scheme
would trip.
195
Percentage or Biased Differential Relays
Since there is a mal-operation of the normal differential

scheme and their associated drawbacks in the through fault
and variable tap changing conditions, the scheme is
modified by providing a restraining winding which is
energized by the through current.
This makes the operating winding biased or in other words
it is made to operate by some percentage of the through
current. This makes the relay more sensitive at low current
without tripping for external fault.

196
Percentage or Biased Differential Relays

197
Methods for Prevention Operation on Inrush
Currents

198
Methods for Prevention Operation on Inrush
Currents
(ii)Harmonic restraint: This is the most extensively used methods for making
the relays immune to harmonics caused by inrush. The restraint coils is
energized by the dc equivalent of bias winding current as well as the
harmonics.
Harmonic restraint circuit is formed by tuning XCXL which would permit
only currents of only fundamental frequency to enter the operating circuit
while the dc and higher harmonics are diverted onto the restraining
winding.
But this circuit may prove to be failure if the internal faults are also rich in
harmonics which may be caused due to an arc or if the CT saturates and
produce harmonics.
For this purpose an instantaneous over current relay is provided in the
differential circuit which is set above the maximum inrush current but will
operate in less than one cycle on internal faults. The circuit for the same
can Department
be given ofasElectrical and Electronics Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi
Harmonic Restraint Relay

200
Gas Actuated Relays
When there is a fault in the transformer tank, it leads to the

gas formation in the tank itself, which is slow for the
incipient faults and violently for heavy faults.
The gas which is formed due to decomposition of the oil
which is caused by the high amount of heat produced by the
local currents can be made use of for detecting the faults.
One of the famous relays in this context is the Buchholz
Relay.

201
Buchholz Relay.
 It is the simplest type of relay consisting of a chamber connected between
the conservator and the transformer main tank.
 Within the chamber, it consists of two cylindrical floats, one at the top of
the chamber and the other opposite orifice of the pipe to the transformer.
In the normal conditions the floats are up, but when there is an incipient
fault like an inter turn fault, the gas which is formed due to it moves up in
the direction of conservator.
 On moving up they are trapped inside the relay chamber and thereby
reducing the oil level. This results in upper float to fall down which was
initially kept up by the oil level.
 When this float reaches a predetermined distance, it closes the contact and
gives an alarming signal to the personnel.
 But when the fault is heavy, the surge of gas and oil engages the lower
float also to be pushed down which in turn trips the circuit breaker.
202
Buchholz Relay.

203

204

205
Bus Bar Protection
 The busbar zone, for the purpose of protection, includes not only the busbars
themselves but also the isolating switches, circuit breakers and the associated
connections.
 In the event of fault on any section of the busbar, all the circuit equipments
connected to that section must be tripped out to give complete isolation.
 The standard of construction for busbars has been very high, with the result
that bus faults are extremely rare.
 However, the possibility of damage and service interruption from even a rare
bus fault is so great that more attention is now given to this form of
protection.
 Improved relaying methods have been developed, reducing the possibility of
incorrect operation.
 The two most commonly used schemes for busbar protection are :
(i) Differential protection (ii) Fault bus protection
206
Differential protection
The basic method for busbar protection is the
differential scheme in which currents entering and
leaving the bus are summed up.
 During normal load condition, the sum of these currents
is equal to zero. When a fault occurs, the fault current
upsets the balance and produces a differential current to
operate a relay.

207

208
 Figure shows the single line diagram of current differential scheme for a
station busbar.
 The busbar is fed by a generator and supplies load to two lines. The
secondaries of current transformers in the generator lead, in line 1 and in line 2
are all connected in parallel.
 The protective relay is connected across this parallel connection. All CTs must
be of the same ratio in the scheme regardless of the capacities of the various
circuits.
 Under normal load conditions or external fault conditions, the sum of the
currents entering the bus is equal to those leaving it and no current flows
through the relay.
 If a fault occurs within the protected zone, the currents entering the bus will no
longer be equal to those leaving it.
 The difference of these currents will flow through the relay and cause the
opening of the generator, circuit breaker and each of the line circuit breakers.
209
Fault Bus protection
It is possible to design a station so that the faults that

develop are mostly earth-faults.
This can be achieved by providing earthed metal barrier
(known as fault bus) surrounding each conductor
throughout its entire length in the bus structure.
With this arrangement, every fault that might occur must
involve a connection between a conductor and an earthed
metal part.
By directing the flow of earth-fault current, it is possible to
detect the faults and determine their location. This type of
protection is known as fault bus protection.
210

211
In the schematic arrangement of fault bus protection, the metal
supporting structure or fault bus is earthed through a current
transformer.
A relay is connected across the secondary of this CT.
Under normal operating conditions, there is no current flow
from fault bus to ground and the relay remains inoperative.
 A fault involving a connection between a conductor and
earthed supporting structure will result in current flow to
ground through the fault bus, causing the relay to operate.
 The operation of relay will trip all breakers connecting
equipment to the bus. -
212

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POWER SYSTEMS -2 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

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POWER SYSTEM-II

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi

[T1] Paithanker, Bhide ,Fundamentals of Power System Protection, PHI 2014

• B Ravindranath M Chander,Power System Protection and Switchgear ,New Age

1. To introduce the concepts and constructional features

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi

CO 1 To analyse construction and operating characteristics

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi

Classification of Relays: Electromechanical, static and numerical

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi

BASIS ISOLATOR CIRCUIT BREAKER

Operation It is operated manually. It is operated Automatically.

Action of device It is a Mechanical device It is an Electronic device

Function Isolator cut out a portion of The Circuit breaker is a

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, BVCOE New Delhi

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi

These contacts in turns close and complete the circuit

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi

Energising/Actuating Quantity – Current/Voltage

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi

16 Subject: PS-II, Instructor: Dr.Kusum Tharani

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi

Based on the technology used

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi

Definition: Electromagnetic relays are those relays which

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi

In this relay, the armature is attracted to the pole of a

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi

The equation shows that the electromagnetic relay consists

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi

The different type of structure has been used for

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi

This coil is usually energised by current flowing in the

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi

This structure consists E shape electromagnet and a U

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi

The relay which works on the principle of

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi

The coil which is wound on the electromagnet generates

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi

• The essential components of static relays are shown in fig. The

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi

• The rectified output is supplied to a measuring unit

• The output is actuated when the dynamic input (i.e., the

• This output of the measuring unit is amplified by amplifier