Introduction

to Neurobiochemistry
The Neuron: Structure, Composition
and Metabolism
 Introduction
• The nervous system composed of central nervous system (CNS) and
peripheral nervous system (PNS)
• major cell types: neurons and glial cells
• the most abundant cell is the glial cell, which consists of astrocytes and
oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system (CNS), and Schwann
cells in the peripheral nervous system (PNS).
• These cells provide support for the neurons and synthesize the protective
myelin sheath that surrounds the axons emanating from the neurons
• Microglial cells in the nervous system act as immune cells(macrophages),
destroying and ingesting foreign organisms that enter the nervous system
• The astrocytes is the chief metabolic cell of nervous system while the
neurons are concerned with transmissions
• The interface between the brain parenchyma and the cerebrospinal
fluid (CSF) compartment is formed by the ependymal cells, which
line the cavities of the brain and spinal cord
Cellular organization of Nervous system
• The nervous system is made up of two principal types of cells:
i). Neurons (nerve cells) are the functional units of the nervous
system.
ii). Glia are supporting cells.
Functions of nerve
• Different parts of the neuron are specialized for these
functions
• Neurons receive inputs on their dendrites.
• They integrate information based on the shape of their
dendrites and cell bodies
• They transmit information via axons
• And they release neurotransmitters at synaptic terminals
(sometimes referred to as just synapses or terminals)
 Cellular organization of Nervous system
cont’d
• In the peripheral nervous system, collections
of nerve cell bodies are called ganglia;
• collections of axons are termed nerves
• In the CNS, areas that contain nerve cell bodies
are called gray matter; areas that contain axons
are termed white matter
• Areas in which there are synaptic connections
between axons and dendrites are termed
neuropil
Cellular organization of Nervous system cont’d

• The two principal subdivisions of the nervous

system are the CNS and peripheral nervous
system (PNS)
• CNS includes the brain, spinal cord, and retina,

• the PNS, includes sensory and autonomic

ganglia and peripheral nerves
 THE NEURONS
• The key point with respect to neuronal cell biology is that different
parts of the neuron are specialized for its different functions.
• Figure 1 illustrates the principal parts of a
• typical neuron in the cerebral cortex. The key parts of the neuron
are the
(1) cell body,
(2) dendrites,
(3) axon, and
(4) synaptic terminals of the axon, which contact other neurons.
• Mapping function to structure, we find that:
1. Dendrites and neuronal cell bodies are the primary receiving
elements of the neuron and the site of integration
2. The axon is specialized to transmit information over long distances
3. Presynaptic terminals are specialized for communication with target
cells through the release of neurotransmitters
 The nerve cell

Figure 1. The structure of nerve cell

 Synaptic junction

Figure 2. the presynaptic and postsynaptic junctions

1. The cell body (soma; pI. somata)
• is the trophic center of the neuron
• It contains the nucleus and the principal protein
synthetic machinery of the neuron
2. Axons have essentially no ability to synthesize protein
because they do not contain ribosomes or significant
amounts of RNA throughout most of their length
• Thus, axons depend entirely on proteins produced
in the cell body, which are delivered into the axon by
important transport proteins
3. The Nucleus
• A substantial proportion of the genome is continually
transcribed in neurons
• As a result of the high level of transcriptional activity,
neurons are euchromatic; that is, the nuclear chromatin is
dispersed
• In contrast, glial cells are heterochromatic; their chromatin
is usually distributed non homogeneously, with clumps of
chromatin on the internal face of their nuclear membrane.
• This characteristic provides one useful way to distinguish
neurons from glial cells microscopically
4. Dendrite
• Dendrites contain all of the organelles found in axons and also contain
ribosomes
• The presence of polyribosomes in dendrites indicates that local protein
synthesis plays an important role in dendritic function.
• The discovery that dendritic polyribosomes are selectively localized beneath
synaptic sites suggests that the proteins that are locally
synthesized may be important components of the postsynaptic region.
• Most dendrites do not possess high concentrations of Na+ channels in their
membranes and thus do not propagate action potentials.
• Instead, dendrites behave as cable conductors.
• The cable properties of the dendrite are determined by the form of the
dendrite.
• Thus, dendritic form (size and length) defines the nature of electrical
integration carried out by the particular cell type
Formation of blood-brain barrier
• Figure 3. The blood-brain barrier.
• The blood-brain barrier is formed by
• capillary endothelial cells. In the
• brain, there are tight junctions
• between these cells, in contrast with
• the endothelial cells surrounding
• peripheral vasculature, which are
• either fenestrated or have lowresistance
• junctions.
• From Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessell TM.
• Principles of Neural Science, 3rd ed.
• New York, NY: Elsevier; 1991;
• adapted from Fishman RA.
• Cerebrospinal Fluid in Diseases of the
• Nervous System. Philadelphia, Pa: WB
• Saunders; 1980.
 GLIAL CELLS OF THE CNS
• GLIAL CELLS OF THE CNS
• There are three types of eNS glia that can be distinguished by size and
embryonic origin:
(1) astrocytes (also called astroglia),
(2) oligodendrocytes(also called oligodendroglia), and
(3) microglia
• Astrocytes and oligodendrocytes originate from the neuroepithelium.
• Microglia originate from the mesoderm
 Astrocytes
• Astrocytes are present in both gray and white matter and are highly
differentiated cells
• In gray matter, thin vellate (veil-like) astrocytic processes surround
neuronal cell bodies, dendrites, and synapses
• Processes of astrocytes also contact capillaries, where they form
flattened structures termed glial end-feet, which surround the capillary
• In the white matter, the processes of astrocytes
intertwine between bundles of axons and also
form glial end-feet on capillaries.
• The astrocytes in white matter are termed
• fibrous astrocytes because they have large
• numbers of glial filaments
• Table
Astrocytes in
9–2. Origin and gray
principal matter
functions are termed
of neuroglial cells.
Glial Cell Type Origin Location Main Functions
protoplasmic
Oligodendrocyte astrocytes
Neural tube because
Central nervous system Myelinthey haveelectric
production,
insulation
fewer filaments.
Neurolemmocyte Neural crest Peripheral nerves Myelin production, electric
insulation
Astrocyte Neural tube Central nervous system Structural support, repair processes
Blood-brain barrier, metabolic exchanges
Ependymal cell Neural tube Central nervous system Lining cavities of central nervous
system
Microglia Bone marrow Central nervous system Immune-related activity
 Glial cells by type, origin and principal
functions
Glial cell type Origin Location Major Functions
Oligodendrocytes Neural tube Central nervous Myelin production;
system(CNS) electrical insulation
Neurolemmocytes Neural crest PNS Myelin production;
electrical insulation
Astrocyte Neural tube CNS Structural support;
repair processes;
BBB; metabolic
exchanges
Ependymal cell Neural tube CNS Lining of the
ventricular cavities
Microglial Bone marrow CNS Immune-related
activity
 Oligodendrocytes
• Oligodendrocytes are also present in gray matter and white
matter
• The oligodendrocytes in white matter are called intrafascicular
oligodendrocytes;
• these cells are the myelin forming cells of the eNS (Figure 4).
• The oligodendrocytes in gray matter are termed perineuronal
oligodendrocytes because they are found in close contact with
neuronal cell bodies as satellite cells
• The myelin sheath is a specialization of the plasma membrane
of the oligodendrocyte that wraps itself around the axon
• Individual oligodendrocytes extend a number of processes,
each of which contacts an individual axon
• Each process then elaborates a myelin sheath around the axon
that is contacted
Figure 4. Relationship between oligodendrocytes and neuronal elements.
A,Intrafascicular oligodendrocytes are the myelinforming cells in eNS white matter. A
single oligodendrocyte provides the myelin sheath for several axons. B illustrates a
relatively early stage in the process of myelin formation to emphasize
the fact that the myelin consists of severalwrappings of the plasma membrane of the
oligodendrocyte. As the myelin matures, the membrane wraps become more closely
apposed. C, Perineuronal oligodendrocytes are located in gray matter and are so named
because they are found in close contact with neuronal cell bodies as satellite cells
 Neurotransmitters in the nervous system
• Neurotransmitters can be divided structurally into two categories:
small
nitrogen-containing neurotransmitters and neuropeptides.
• The small nitrogen-containing neurotransmitters are generally
synthesized in the presynaptic terminal from amino acids and
intermediates of glycolysis and the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle.
• They are retained in storage vesicles until the neuron is depolarized
1. The catecholamine neurotransmitters (dopamine,
norepinephrine, and epinephrine) are derived from tyrosine
2. Serotonin is synthesized from tryptophan
3. Acetylcholine is synthesized from choline, which can be supplied from
the diet or is synthesized and stored as part of phosphatidylcholine
4. Glutamate and its neurotransmitter derivative, γ-aminobutyric acid
(GABA), are derived from α-ketoglutarate in the TCA cycle
5. Glycine is synthesized in the brain from serine
 Other molecules for neurological function
• A large number of cofactors are required for the
synthesis of neurotransmitters, and deficiencies
of pyridoxal phosphate, thiamin
pyrophosphate, and vitamin B12 result in a
variety of neurologic dysfunctions
• Essential fatty acids can enter the brain, but the
more common fatty acids do not
• The turnover of lipids at the synaptic
membrane is very rapid, and the neuron must
replace those lipids lost during exocytosis