LECTURE 4:

SIMPLE STRAIN
PART 2

ENSC 021: FUNDAMENTALS OF DEFORMABLE BODIES

BSEE 2-1 BSEE 2-3 2PENSC20152
 SHEARING DEFORMATION
Shearing forces cause a shearing deformation, just as axial forces cause
elongations, but with an important difference. An element subject to tension
undergoes an increase in length; an element subject to shear does not change
the length of its sides, but it undergoes a change in shape from a rectangle to a
parallelogram.
 SHEARING DEFORMATION
The action may be visualized as equivalent to the infinitesimal sliding of
infinitely thin layers past each other, thereby resulting in the total shearing
deformation in the length .

The average shearing strain is found by dividing by L. In the figure,

this defines . However, since the angle is usually very small, and we obtain

More precisely, the shearing strain is defined as the angular change

between two perpendicular faces of a differential element.
 SHEARING DEFORMATION
The relation between shearing stress and shearing strain, assuming Hooke’s law
to apply to shear, is

in which represents the modulus of elasticity in shear, more commonly called

the modulus of rigidity. The relation between the shearing deformation and
applied shearing forces is then expressed by

in which is the shearing force acting over the shearing area .

 POISSON’S RATIO
a. Uniaxial Loading
Experiments show that when a bar is stretched by an axial force, there is a
contraction in the transverse dimensions.
 POISSON’S RATIO
a. Uniaxial Loading
In 1811, Siméon D. Poisson showed that the ratio of the transverse strain to the
axial strain is constant for stresses within the proportional limit. This constant,
called Poisson’s ratio, is denoted by where
 POISSON’S RATIO
b. Biaxial Loading
Poisson’s ratio permits us to extend Hooke’s law for uniaxial loading to biaxial
and triaxial loadings. Consider an element of the material that is subjected
simultaneously to normal stresses in the x and y directions.
 POISSON’S RATIO
b. Biaxial Loading
The strains caused by alone are given in equation previously. Similarly, the
strains due to are and. Using superposition, we write the combined effect of the
two normal stresses as

which is Hooke’s law for biaxial loading in the xy-plane ().

 POISSON’S RATIO
b. Biaxial Loading
The first two equations can be inverted to express the stresses in terms of the
strains:
 POISSON’S RATIO
c. Triaxial Loading
Hooke’s law for the triaxial loading in the figure below is obtained by
adding the contribution of , and = , to the
strains in the equation which yields
 POISSON’S RATIO
All the equations are valid for both tensile and compressive effects. It is only
necessary to assign positive signs to elongations and tensile stresses and,
conversely, negative signs to contractions and compressive stresses.

An important relations among the constants E, G, and n for a given

material is expressed by

which is useful for computing values of v when E and G have been determined.
Common values of Poisson’s ratio are to for steel, approximately for most
other metals, and for concrete.
 EXAMPLE 1
A diameter steel tube with a wall thickness of
just fits in a rigid hole. Find the tangential stress
if an axial compressive load of is applied.
Assume and neglect the possibility of buckling.
SOLUTION
 EXAMPLE 2
A rectangular steel block is long in the x direction,
long in the y direction, and long in the z direction.
The block is subjected to a triaxial loading of three
uniformly distributed forces as follows: tension in
the x direction, compression in the y direction, and
tension in the z direction. If and , determine the
single uniformly distributed load in the x direction
that would produce the same deformation in the y
direction as the original loading.
SOLUTION
 THERMAL STRESS
It is well known that changes in temperature cause dimensional changes in a
body: an increase in temperature results in expansion, whereas a temperature
decrease produces contraction. This deformation is isotropic (the same in
every direction) and proportional to the temperature change. It follows that the
associated strain, called thermal strain, is

where the constant is a material property known as the coefficient of thermal

expansion, and is the temperature change. The coefficient of thermal
expansion represents the normal strain caused by a one-degree change in
temperature. The units of are 1/°C (per
degree Celsius) in the SI system, and 1/°F (per degree Fahrenheit) in
the U.S. Customary system.
 THERMAL STRESS
It is well known that changes in temperature cause dimensional changes in a
body: an increase in temperature results in expansion, whereas a temperature
decrease produces contraction. This deformation is isotropic (the same in
every direction) and proportional to the temperature change. It follows that the
associated strain, called thermal strain, is

where the constant is a material property known as the coefficient of thermal

expansion, and is the temperature change. The coefficient of thermal
expansion represents the normal strain caused by a one-degree change in
temperature. The units of are 1/°C (per
degree Celsius) in the SI system, and 1/°F (per degree Fahrenheit) in
the U.S. Customary system.
 THERMAL STRESS
If the temperature change is uniform throughout the body, the thermal strain is
also uniform. Consequently, the change in any dimension L of the body is
given by

If thermal deformation is permitted to occur freely (by using expansion joints

or roller supports, for example), no internal forces will be induced in the body
– there will be strain, but no stress. In cases where the deformation of a body
is restricted, either totally or
partially, internal forces will develop that oppose the thermal expansion or
contraction. The stresses caused by these internal forces are known as thermal
stresses.
 THERMAL STRESS
The forces that result from temperature changes cannot be determined by
equilibrium analysis alone; that is, these forces are statically indeterminate.
Consequently, the analysis of thermal stresses follows the principle:
equilibrium, compatibility, and Hooke’s law. The only difference here is that
we must now include thermal expansion in the analysis of deformation.
 EXAMPLE 3
A homogeneous, rigid block weighing is supported by three symmetrically
placed rods. The lower ends of the rods were at the same level before the block
was attached. Determine the stress in each rod after the block is attached and the
temperature of all bars increases by . Use the following data:
SOLUTION
 EXAMPLE 4
A rigid bar of negligible weight is supported
as shown in the figure. If , compute the
temperature change that will cause the stress
in the steel rod to be . Assume the
coefficients of linear expansion are for steel
and for bronze.
SOLUTION