MINISTRY OF EDUCATION, SCIENCE

AND TECHNOLOGY & VOCATIONAL

TRAINNING
GEOGRAPHY FORM THREE

MAP READING AND INTERPRETATION

GEORGE
N. F

MIRONGO
geo
FORM
SEC THREE
By GEORGE N. F
 Area to be covered
1. Concept of map reading
2. Types of scale
3. Types of map
4. Essential of the map
5. Method used to measure distance
6. Cross section.
7. Gradient
8. Compass bearing
9. The location of position.
10. Economic activities
11. Question
By GEORGE N. F
 1. CONCEPT OF MAP.
• Is a representation of an area of the earth surface on a flat
surface such as paper, black board or wood.
- Map reading Is the systematic identification of natural
features ( mountain, plateaus, plain, valleys, rivers, rocks,
and water bodies ) and Man made features like roads,
railways, dams, factories, and building on the map.
- Map interpretation refers to interpretation of the
Map reading
symbols and signs used on map into ordinary language by
indicating the features they represent and draw logical
conclusions from the information as represented by the
symbols.
• CARTOGRAPHY Is the science of making maps.
• CARTOGRAPHER Is the person who makes or create
maps. By GEORGE N. F
Map reading Is a systematic identification of
natural features and human features n the map.
- is a skill of being able to recognize or identify the
symbols and sign that are on the map.
Types of Map
a) Topographical map
b) Statistical map
A. TOPOGRAPHICAL MAP – Is the type of map that used to
show both natural and artificial features.
- Example of natural features are mountains, hills, rivers,
waterfalls. Etc
- Examples of artificial features railways, roads, building,
dams. Etc .
B. STATISTICAL MAP- Is the type of map that shows
geographical distribution of phenomena's. example
distribution of rainfall and temperature.
By GEORGE N. F
 Essentials / Components of Map

i. TITLE-(Heading) Is used to tell what the map is about eg.

SONGWE
ii. MARGIN LINE- it show the boundaries of the area
represented, normally straight line are used
- It cover the map
- It show where the map ended
- It separates with other information which obtain in the
same sheet
iii. KEY / LEGEND It gives information of the symbols and signs
used on the map.
iv. SCALE It determine the size of the features that found on the
map
v. NORTH DIRECTION. Usually is found on the map that locate
and show the position of various place on the map .
By GEORGE N. F
Vi. DATE. It show when the map was produced because
the earth undergo different changes
Vii GRID REFFERENCE . It help to know the position
of the place
Viii. AUTHOLITY. It deal with the ownership of the
map
SCALE
Is the ratio between the distance on the map
and the actual distance on the group
SCALE= map distance
ground distance
By GEORGE N. F
 TYPES OF SCALE
1. LARGE SCALE:- Is the scale that used to represent
small area of land. Example village, farms.
- Scale size is from 1:5,000 to 1:25,000.
2. MEDIUM SCALE:- Is the scale that used to
represent medium area of land. Example region,
country
- Scale size is from 1:50,000 to 250,000.
3. SMALL SCALE. Is the scale that used to represent
large area of land. Example continents and world
- Most of features are small and not seen clearly
- It show large town
- Scale size is from 1:500,000 to 1:15,000,000
By GEORGE N. F
 EXPRESSION OF THE SCALE
• Ways of expression of the scale as follows.
a. Statement scale
b. Representative fraction
c. Linear scale
A. STATEMENT SCALE Is the scale which is expressed in
terms of statement (words)
-it may not occupy large space on map
- It does not involve difficult calculation
- Example One centimeter on the map represents a half
kilometer on the ground

By GEORGE N. F
B. REPRESENTATIVE SCALE. Is the scale which
expressed in term of fraction or ratio
- example 1:50,000 or 1/50,000
C. LINEAR SCALE. Is the scale which expressed in
term of line.
- it is used to measure long distance
- it contain two section such as primary section and
secondary section.

By GEORGE N. F
 Scale conversion
Exercise
1. 1:50,000 change into statement scale
2. 1cm = 2km change into representative
fraction
3. One centimeter represent four kilometer on
a map. Change into linear scale
4. 1:100,000 change into linear scale
5. 1:50,000 change into linear scale

By GEORGE N. F
 Uses of map scale
• Are used to calculate distance on the map like
road, railways etc.
• Are used to plot cross section, relief section.
• Are used to calculate the map area
• Are used to determine construction of road,
railways with its distance
• Are used to calculate gradient of the map.
• Are used to calculate vertical exaggeration of
the land scape.
• Are used to show the relationship between map
distance and actual ground distance
By GEORGE N. F
 IMPORTANCE OF THE SCALE
- Scale enable the interpretation of the ground
measurement such as area, sizes distance.
- Scale enable the map user to interpret the amount of
contents shown on the map with regards to the scale size.
- Scale helps the map user to know the area of the land
represented
- Scale helps to determine the map size to be drawn.
- Scale control the amount of contents to be shown on the
map.
- Scale helps the process of map reduction and enlargement
- Scales help the map to decide on size of convectional
symbols and sign to be shown on the map.
By GEORGE N. F
 CALCULATIONS IN MAP
Measurement Of Distance On a Map
To measure the distance of the map is to determine the
length from one point to another
Example point A B
a. Straight distance is measured by using a ruler
b. Curve distance example roads and railways is
measured by using the following instruments:
i. A pair of dividers
ii. A thread or thin string
iii. A peace of paper
NOTE: When the distance of a feature is measured, it
must be converted into kilometer (km) by using the
map scale.
By GEORGE N. F
 ii. Thin string
such as cotton string is used to measure a stretch
with many curves distance.

By GEORGE N. F
iii. A peace of paper
- This method can be used to measure both short and long
distance on the topographical map.

By MGONGO PM
 CALCULATING AREA ON MAP
Area on a map can be Regular or Irregular.

A.REGULAR features that form regular shape

are like triangle, square, rectangle etc

By GEORGE N. F
 SQUARE

To find the area is side x side

TRIANGLE AREA
To find the area is ½ x width x length

RECTANGLE AREA

To find the area is length x width

By GEORGE N. F
 B. IRREGULAR SHAPE
• The method used are
-square method
-strip method
-geometrical method
1. SQUARE METHOD.
Example: Find the area of forest covered on the map if
full square = 8 and half square = 15
Solution:
Find the total squares.
Total square = full square + half square
2
= 8+15 =8+ 7.5 =15.5 square
2
= 15.5squareBy GEORGE N. F
Find the area of 1 square
Area of 1 square = 2cm X 2cm
From the map scale 1:50000,
Statement scale:1cm = 0.5 km hence 2cm = 1km
Therefore, 2cm X 2cm = 1km X 1km
= 1km2
Therefore, the area of 1 square is 1km2
Find the total area of the map in km 2
If the area of 1 square = 1km2
15.5 squares = ?
= 15.5 squares X 1km2
1 square
= 15. 5 X 1km2
= 15.5 km2
Therefore, the area of the map is 15.5 km 2
By GEORGE N. F
IDENTIFYING LOCATION OF POSITION (ways of locating positions on a map)

POSITION:- refers to place where a person

or object stand.
- Ways of locating the position on a map
a) Place names
b) bearing
c) Compass direction
d) Longitude and latitudes
e) Grid references
f) Political and administrative boundaries
g) North direction

By GEORGE N. F
 Place names
Is the way of locating place by using specific
names of a particular place. Example Njombe,
mount Kilimanjaro, Kigoma etc
Longitude and latitude
Is the way of locating a place by using line and
always we star by reading latitude and the longitude
Grid reference
It consist vertical line and horizontal line drawn on a map and
fixing position imaginary lin.
-The vertical line are also called EASTINGS
-The horizontal line are also called NORTHINGS
NOTE: We start reading Easting line in three digits (numbers)
followed by Northing line in three digits (numbers) .
By GEORGE N. F
Example

By GEORGE N. F
Example 2.

By GEORGE N. F
 Compass bearing
Compass is an instrument used to find the direction
Ways of showing north direction
- Geographical or true north
- Magnetic north
- Grid north
Geographical or true north
Is the direction towards the 90 degree north latitude,
from any place on the earth surface
- It is usually represented by star
Magnetic north
Is the direction to the magnetic north pole.
- It is usually represented by a line ending with half of an
arrow head
By GEORGE N. F
 Grid north
Is the point where grid lines meet in the north pole

By GEORGE N. F
 Compass direction
• Are measured from the north along a 360 degree of circle.
- The main directions or cardinal points are
a) East
b) West
c) North
d) South

By GEORGE N. F
Four cardinal point can be divided into
eight direction.

16 cardinal points
 Compass Bearing
It show the direction with respect to another point
measured clockwise from 0 degree to 360 degree.
-types of bearing
1. True bearing
2. Magnetic bearing
3. Grid bearing
True bearing- is the bearing calculated from the
true north clockwise
-It is also knows as geographical bearing
-True bearing is the direction of the north pole and it
is the position on the globe where all longitudes
meet
By GEORGE N. F
 Magnetic Bearing
Is the bearing calculated from magnetic clockwise to
360 degree.
- Magnetic north is the position of the earth
magnetic north pole.
- It is based on the magnetic field of north pole and
south pole
Grid Bearing
Is the bearing calculated from grid north clockwise
to 360 degree.
-In topographical map the lines which form a
network of square are called grid north.
-They are drawn run from the north pole to the
south pole of the map.
By GEORGE N. F
 Procedures to find the bearing
Example: find the bearing of point A to point B
• Determine the two points on a map
• Join point A and point B with a straight line.
• Draw the cardinal points on the starting point (point
A)
• Use protector to measure the angle from point A to
B towards a line AB.

The bearing of point A to B is 65 degree

By GEORGE N. F
• Back bearing – is a degree of observer from the points ( BB)
• Forward bearing – is a degree of object from the observer
• Example FB = 60 degree
formula BB = FB + 180
If FB is < less than 180 (+)
If BB is > greater than 180 (-)
Therefore fb= 60
= BB = FB + 180
= BB = 60+180
= BB = 240 degree
Example if the bearing of Njombe is FB 90 find the bearing
of Iringa

By GEORGE N. F
 Methods used to identify relief features
on topographical map
Relief refers to the physical landscape (general appearance of the land) of the
surface of the earth that is brought about by landform features

1. Contour line. Are the lines drawn on a map to join all place or area with
the equal height , altitude from the sea level.

By MGONGO PM
 2.Trigonometrical station/ point.
• These are accurately surveyed altitude or
height from the sea level. They are marked by
triangle followed by numbers of height of land

By MGONGO PM
 3. Spot height
These are accurately surveyed altitude or height
from the sea level. They represented by small
circle showing the highest point of the
mountain.
5890

By GEORGE N. F
 4.Bench mark
These are wall indication or poles showing
altitude a height in relation to the sea level.
Bench mark is represented by MB.

By GEORGE N. F
 5. HILL SHADING
Is a tradition method of showing relief features
by showing the direction of some aspect.

By GEORGE N. F
 6. HACHURING METHOD
This is traditional method of showing relief
features where by line are drawn on the map to
show the direction of slope clearly

By GEORGE N. F
By GEORGE N. F
 7.Form line

Refers to the unnumbered lines drawn on a map joining

of nearly the same height areas. They are drawn
between two contour lines.

By GEORGE N. F
 8. LAYER COLOUR
This involves the use of colour to show or
represent relief features.

By GEORGE N. F
 CROSS SECTION.
Refers to the relief profile, section or layout of
land form between given points on the
contoured map.
Types of relief
A. Relief cross profile
B. Annotated relief section
A . Relief cross profile is less detailed
B . Annotated relief section is more detailed this
include several details seen like river,
mountain, forest and lake
By GEORGE N. F
 Procedures in drawing cross section
(i) Identify the two points on the contoured map or sheet example point
A to B
(ii) Join the two points asked by using a pencil.
(iii) Take folded paper and fold it then place the folded paper on the lining
joining the two point.
(iv) On the folded paper mark all contours and other features crossed by
line between two points
(v) Take your answer sheet and almost at its middle draw a straight
horizontal line equivalent in length and width on the answer sheet.
(vi) Choose the suitable vertical scale by observing the vertical interval
(vii) Mark and label the two perpendicular vertical line starting from the
lowest to highest contour.
(viii)Join all points obtained and mark all important features.
(ix) Shade the diagram
(x) Indicate the starting point and ending point
By GEORGE N. F
(xi) Write title of the cross section
Example of cross section

By GEORGE N. F
VISIBILITY OF TWO POINTS (INTERVISIBLITY)
Refers to the ability or possibility of two points on
the contoured map to be seen from each other.
- If the points can be seen from each other there
fore the point are INTERVISIBLE.
- But if the two points can not be seen from each
other on the contour map the two points are
NOT INTERVISIBLE.
FACTORS AFFECTING VISIBILITY
1. Relief
2. Vegetation cover
3. Human activities By GEORGE N. F
 VERTICAL EXAGGERATION (V.E)
Vertical exaggeration is the relationship between
vertical scale and horizontal scale.
- It is important to understand that when you draw
cross section it is necessary to calculate vertical
exaggeration.
- Vertical exaggeration helps us to know how much
the relief profile is magnified or exaggeration
between two points in the contoured map.
-Vertical exaggeration= Vertical scale
Horizontal scale
By GEORGE N. F
 Example
• The horizontal scale is usually given on the map. The
vertical scale is the one which has been used to draw the
feature like relief cross section.
For example: given H.S= 1:50000, V.S= 1cm to 50m find
the vertical exaggeration.
Solution.
V.E= V.S
H.S
Convert 50 into cm
V.E= 50000
5000
= 10
Vertical Exaggeration
By GEORGE N. F is 10
 GRADIENT / SLOPE
Is the amount of fall and rise.
- It may also be referred to as the ratio between vertical
increase ( the difference between highest contour and
the lowest contour crossed between two points) and the
horizontal equivalent (horizontal distance between the
two points measured by using a ruler).
- Gradient = vertical interval
Horizontal equivalent
The horizontal distance is measured on the map then it is
converted into ground distance by the use of the map
scale.
In calculating gradient both vertical and horizontal lengths
must he brought to the same unit of length.
By GEORGE N. F
Example. Given the vertical interval VI = 200M
and HE = 6000M and the map scale is 1:50000.
calculate the gradient.
Soln. gradient = 200m
6000m
= 1/30 OR 1:30
Note: When you determine types of relief first
look on the units (V.I) whether the unit is in
meters or feet. If units are in feet take the highest
value the convent into meter finally determine
type of relief (1m=3.3ft).
By GEORGE N. F
 Example 2.
Given; highest contour 700, lowest contour 300
V.I= 400m, Length from point A to B is 8.4cm and Scale of map lcm to 2km, Calculate the
gradient.
Step 1
Change 8.4cm into ground /map scale
1cm to 2km
8.4 cm to X
=16.8km
Step 2
Change the ground scale into meters
1km = 1000m
16.8km = ?
= 16800m
Step 3 V.I
Gradient = H.E
400m
G = 16800m

Gradient=1/42 By GEORGE N. F
 Drainage interpretation

Drainage is the natural or artificial removal of surface and sub-surface

water from an area. Drainage also includes other features such as
oceans, seas, lakes, river, swamps, canals, and ponds which are related
to water.
Drainage Pattern Is the removal of water from the land. OR
- Is the plan or layout of the river with its tributaries.
- Is the actual arrangement of the main stream and their tributaries.
- It is layout network or steam or river on the landscape.
- River system has various pattern of drainage
FACTORS THAT DETERMINE DRAINAGE PATTERN
1. Slope of the land
2. Different in rock hardness.
3. Geological structures
4. Human activities
5. Nature of the vegetation cover
By GEORGE N. F
 TYPES OF DRAINAGE PATTERN
1) Dendritic drainage is pattern in which river takes a shape
like a tree with its branches, or a leaf with its veins. The
tributaries join the main river at an acute angle.

By GEORGE N. F
By GEORGE N. F
 2.Trellised drainage
Is the drainage which developed in the soft and
hard rock, the tributaries is almost on the right
angle
Structure of trellised drainage pattern

By GEORGE N. F
 3.Rectangular pattern

Is the pattern where by the tributary joins the

main river, it is commonly in faulted area and
similar some how to trellised

By GEORGE N. F
 4.Radial pattern

Is the stream flowing out ward down from the dome shape like
volcano. Is the pattern in which streams / rivers flow outward
in all directions from the central point.
Example; Kilimanjaro, Elgon mount. It depend on igneous rock.

By GEORGE N. F
 5.Annual pattern

The stream occurs flowing in spiral way is due to the

softness and hardness of the rock present.

By GEORGE N. F
 6. Centripetal pattern
The steam is flowing from all direction and inter in the basin or
depression.
It occur due to the presence of steep slope like lake Turkana and
lake Chad

By GEORGE N. F
 7.Parallel pattern
Is the stream that can parallel to one another and
inter to the sea or ocean.

By GEORGE N. F
Other forms of drainage include
• Lake is a body of water occupying a sizeable basin, depression or hollow in the
ground.
• Sea is a portion of an open sea is represented by a pale blue colour that is
shaded with stipples.
• A swamp is a wetland with its associated vegetation. Swamps are common
where the ground forms a shallow depression.
• A pond is a small mass of stagnant water that is commonly found along courses
of small rivers. Most ponds are constructed by people but some occur naturally.
• A waterhole is a shallow and broad pit that traps rainwater. Some waterholes
are natural while others are constructed by people to provide drinking water for
livestock or wild animals.
• A borehole is a deep hole drilled in the ground for the purpose of obtaining
underground water.
• A well is a hole, larger than a borehole, which is dug in the ground for
obtaining underground water that is fairly close to the surface.
• A spring is a place where underground water flows out from the ground to the
surface naturally.
By GEORGE N. F
 ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES
How to determine economic activities in your sheet map.
1. Fishing activities. Due to the presence of water bodies, like
river, lake, sea and dam.These should be surrounded by
settlement.
2. Lumbering activities. Due to the presence of forest and minor
road or track ending in the forest areas.
3. Trading activities. Due to the presence of trading center,
marketing center, transport network, and town center
4. Agriculture activities. Due to the presence different crops,
estate or plantation, and settlement along the river, sea, ocean
for irrigation and Rural settlement in absence of other
activities, Storage houses/center and Industry such as
Ginneries, Hulleries and Decotecator.
5. Mining activities. Due to the presence of mineral activities
and holes.
By GEORGE N. F
6. Tourism activities. Due to the presence of National parks, Game
reserve, Recreational centres like museum, archives beaches and
attractive Landscape e.g. crater depression.
7. Transport and communication activities. Due to the presence
of roads, railways, water bodies, airport.
8. Pastoralist activities. Due to the presence of water holes, bore
holes, cattle dips, grassland with settlements, Cattle market-cattle,
veterinary installation (Vet. office/center), Creamers (lace where
milk, cream butter and cheese are processed).
9. Administrative activities. Due to the presence of Police Station
or Police Post, courthouse and other administrative offices such
as District Commissioner (DC) and Regional Commissioner
(RC).
10. Industrial Activities: These are evidenced by the presence of
manufacturing and processing factories or industries in an area
such as processing factories, pulping plant, mill, bakery,
creamery, ginneries and factory.
By GEORGE N. F
 ENTERPRETATION OF CLIMATE ON MAP
Climate refers to the total atmospheric condition of a place recorded
over a long period of time.The climate of the area on a map can be
identified by of the following:
i. Equatorial climate
 Latitude 00 - 50 on the map
 Crops like coffee, tea, pyrethrum, rubber, sugar cane and cocoa
 Dairy farming
 Vegetation like Forest
ii. Tropical / Savannah Climate
 Latitude 50 - 150 N & S on the map
 Crops like sisal, palm tree, cassava, cotton, millet and sorghum
 Beef cattle farming, ranching and camel rearing.
 Vegetation like woodland, grassland, savannah, shrubs, scrubs and
baobab.
By GEORGE N. F
iii. Semi desert Climate
 It is located between latitude 150 – 300 N & S
 Vegetation like scrub/shrubs (thorn forest) and
thicket(closely set tree)
 Presence of Waterhole (wh), Bore hole (bh), Seasonal
swamps.
iv. Desert Climate / Mediterranean climate (Warm Dry
Climate)
 It is located between latitude 300 – 450 N & S
 Presence of vegetation like cactus and thorny plants.
v. Tundra Climate
 It is found between 450 – 900 N & S
 Presence of ice sheet.
 Presence of coniferous forest vegetation.
By GEORGE N. F
vi. Mountainous Climate
 This climate is indicated by the presence of
mountains in the map. Mountains always
create their own climate due to the difference
in climatic conditions between windward side
and leeward side.

By GEORGE N. F
 ENTERPRETATION OF POPULATION DISTRIBUTION
AND SETTLEMENT ON THE MAP
Human population refers to the total number of people living in
a given area e.g. district, province or a country.
Population distribution refers to the pattern of the population in
an area at a given time. Population is usually uneven due to
different reasons such as distribution of rainfall etc.
Settlement refers to a place or location where people live and
establish their livelihood. OR
Settlement: Is a layout of dwelling in the habitable area where
people live and conduct their social and economic activities by
interacting with the prevailing environment.
There are two types of settlements, which commonly than on the
topographic of a map and these includes, rural and urban
settlement.
By GEORGE N. F
1. Urban Settlement
Is commonly found I areas of the following nature;
 District administrative centers
 Regional administrative centers
 Capital city of a country
2. Rural Settlement
Is an area where the majority of people approximately to cover
80% engage in agriculture.
Settlement pattern is an arrangement or layout of dwellings in
a particular area.
Settlement pattern is also sometimes referred as population
pattern.
There three types of settlement pattern that can be observed on
a map.
By GEORGE N. F
i. Scattered or dispersed settlement pattern
This is a pattern in which dwellings are randomly spread
out over an area. Typically, there are a number of separate
homesteads scattered throughout the area.

By GEORGE N. F
ii. Nucleated or clustered or compact settlement pattern
Nucleated, also known as clustered or compact pattern
settlement pattern, consists of dwellings and other
buildings which are concentrated in a group in a relatively
small area. This type of settlement is mostly found in
urban centres such as towns and cities but also in some
parts of rural areas.

By GEORGE N. F
iii. Linear settlement pattern
A linear settlement pattern is one where buildings (dwellings)
are developed along specific features such as a river or road or
railway line. Buildings appear to be arranged in a line following
the course of the feature. The lines may be straight or curved
depending on the nature of the feature along which houses are
built.

By GEORGE N. F
Factors encouraging Settlements
1. A reliable source of Water supply e.g.
presence of permanent rivers, lakes.
2. Gentle slope i.e. people prefer to
establish settlement in less hazardous
areas.
3. Good soil for agriculture.
4. Pleasant climate condition.
5. Transport and communication.
By GEORGE N. F
ENTERPRETATION OF ROCK TYPE/STRUCTURE
Surface rock on the topographical maps is not
directly indicated. There some clues needed in order
to identify rock type and structure of the mapped
area.
Igneous |Rock
• Landforms like volcanic features like crater, caldera,
volcanic mountains, etc.
• Vegetation like Thick forest suggests the presence
of igneous rock.
• Nature of the Rock; Presence of many streams on
surface, indicate that the rock are impermeable
such as igneous or granitic rock.
By GEORGE N. F
Sedimentary Rock
• Landforms; The presence of erosion and depositional features
such as depression, sand dunes, coral reef, Flood plan and
gentle slope indicate soft rock.
• Vegetation; Poor vegetation cover suggests the presence of
sedimentary rocks
• Nature of the Rock; Absence of streams indicates that the
rocks are permeable.
Metamorphic Rock
• Landforms; The presence of highland with steep slope
indicated that rock is hard and resistance to the erosion.
• Vegetation; Poor vegetation cover suggests the presence of
metamorphic rock.
• Nature of the Rock; Presence of many streams on surface,
indicate that the rock are impermeable
By GEORGE N. F
 ENTERPRETATION OF VEGETATION
Vegetation refers to the plant cover found on the area.
There two types of vegetation which are
i. Natural vegetation
ii. Artificial (Man made) vegetation
On topographical maps, only selected types of vegetation are
shown. These are forests, thicket, bamboo, riverine trees (also
known as galleric or riverine forests), woodland, scrub,
scattered trees, palms and swamp vegetation.
The specific swap plants such as mangrove trees, swap trees,
marsh plants and papyrus can be deduced from the type of
swap shown on the map.
The symbols on the map that are used to represent various
vegetation types are often interpreted in the map key.
By GEORGE N. F
 RELIEF OF THE MAPS
Relief feature are shown commonly by using contours.
1. Slope
A slope the inclination or slant of the land. This inclination varies considerably,
resulting in the following types of slopes:
Gentle slope
This is shown by contours that are evenly spaced and drawn far apart .

By GEORGE N. F
Steep slope
A steep slope is shown by contours that are drawn very close
together. The closer the contours are, the steeper the slope.

By GEORGE N. F
.

By GEORGE N. F
2. Valley
A valley is an elongated depression sloping towards a drainage basin
such as a sea, lake or swamp, and which may contain water or may
be dry. On a topographical map, the contours indicating a valley form
a ‘V-shape’.

By GEORGE N. F
3. Spur
A spur is also known as salient. It is a prominent
projection of raised land from higher ground,
such as a hill or mountainside into lower land.
Then spurs sometimes interlock, and hence the
name interlocking spurs. Spurs are depicted by
contours that form a similar pattern to that of
valleys. The difference is that, in the case of
spurs, the apex of the ‘V-shape’ of the contours
points towards the lower ground and the ‘V’
opens towards the higher ground (see the figure
above).
By GEORGE N. F
By GEORGE N. F
4. Hill
A hill is an upland that rises above the general
relatively low ground but it is of less height than a
mountain.

By GEORGE N. F
The shapes of hills are quite variable. Some appear
to have a regular shape while others are irregularly
shaped.
Regular hill

By GEORGE N. F
Irregular hill

By GEORGE N. F
5. Ridge
A ridge is a fairly narrow and elongated hill or range of hills with
steep slopes on all sides. The top of a ridge may have a number of
peaks formed by hills that form a range. Some ridges are watersheds
that separate rivers which flow in different directions or parallel to
each other.

By GEORGE N. F
By GEORGE N. F
6. Col, saddle and pass
A col is a small depression on a ridge or in a hilly area,
which is located between adjacent peaks of hills. In the
position of a col, there are no contours drawn. A saddle is
described as a broad (wider) flat col in a ridge between
two mountain peaks. The term saddle is sometimes used
interchangeably with col. Their only difference is that a
saddle is wider than a col, that is, the two mountain
summits separating a saddle are far apart while those
separating a col are very close.
A pass is a fairly narrow but deep gap in a mountain
range or between high hills in a low land. It is like a
deepened saddle or col.
By GEORGE N. F
By GEORGE N. F
7. Escarpment
An escarpment is a very steep side of an elongated highland. If
it is formed through the process of faulting, it is called a fault
scarp.
Refers to the whole highland with very steep slopes on one side,
a plateau on top and gentle slopes on the opposite side.

By GEORGE N. F
8. Plateau
This is an upland covering a considerably large area, and whose
top surface is almost flat. It is bordered by steep slopes.
On a topographical map, a plateau is shown as a wide area
surrounded by a common contour of the same height or two
contours that are of the same height on both sides.

By GEORGE N. F
By GEORGE N. F
9) Plain
A plain is a continuous tract of relatively flat land covering a
broad area of lowland.
On topographical maps, a plain is shown by contours that are
very widely spaced. Some rivers, if present, may be seen to have
meanders.

By GEORGE N. F
10)Depression
A depression on a contour map is shown by contour lines
with small marks pointing towards the lowest point of the
depression.

By GEORGE N. F
11) Cliff
A cliff is described as a steep rock face that is vertical or nearly
vertical. Cliffs are common in mountainous or hilly areas and along
the shores of lakes and seas. On topographical maps, cliffs are
shown by contours that are so closely packed that they appear to
merge into one another.

By GEORGE N. F
 Summary of the relief features

The following diagram

summarizes some relief features
shown by contour lines on
topographical maps. The
summary can be used as a quick
reference when revising
representation of relief features
on a map. By GEORGE N. F
By GEORGE N. F
 Qn

By GEORGE N. F
 YO U
A NK
T H
By GEORGE N. F
0714-927643
0719-831455
By GEORGE N. F