RESPIRATORY PHYSIOLOGY

By : Yismaw Y(MSc)
University of Gondar
College of Medicine & Health Sciences
Department of Medical Physiology

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Objectives
At the end of this lesson you are expected to:
1. Enumerate organization of the respiratory system
2. List functions of the respiratory system
3. Explain the phases of respiration
4. Discuss lung mechanics
5. Explain gas exchange
6. Discuss gas transport through the respiratory tracts
7. Discuss regulation of respiration

2
Outlines
Functional anatomy of respiratory system

Mechanics of Pulmonary ventilation

Pulmonary volumes & Capacities

Exchange of gasses

Transport of gasses

Regulation of respiration

3
 Introduction
• Continuity of life requires a respiratory process that supplies O2
and eliminates CO2 continuously
• This is possible because of the respiratory system
It is the system that helps you breath in & out respiratory gases:
 Oxygen (02) can be pumped through your body.
 Carbon dioxide (CO2) can be removed from the
blood stream.
• The respiratory system is made up of a gas-exchanging organ
(the lungs) and a pump that ventilates the lungs.
• The pump consists of
• the chest wall; the respiratory muscles, which increase and
decrease the size of the thoracic cavity;
• the areas in the brain that control the muscles; and
• the tracts and nerves that connect the brain to the muscles.
4
Introduction cont’d..

The term respiration has three meanings:

1. Ventilation of the lungs (breathing).
2. The exchange of gases between lung and blood
and between blood and tissue fluid, and
3. The use of oxygen in cellular metabolism,
Intracellular or internal respiration.

5
Introduction...

Breathing in [Inhalation]
• Brings O2 from outside the body into the lungs & moves
through blood vessels to the heart, which pumps the oxygen-
rich blood to all parts of the body.
• O2 then moves from the bloodstream into cells, which
completes the 1st process of respiration.
• In the cells O2 is used for energy-producing process called
cellular respiration, which produces CO2 as a byproduct
Breathing out [Exhalation] .
• The mov’t of CO2 from the cells to the bloodstream.
• The bloodstream carries CO2 to the heart, which pumps the
CO -laden blood to the lungs.
2

• In the lungs, breathing out/exhalation, removes CO2 from the

body, thus completing the respiration cycle. 6
Processes/Stages of Respiration

1.External respiration:
Pulmonary Ventilation
gas exchange between the atmosphere & lungs

 Exchange I
 Alveolar ventilation
gas exchange between the lungs and blood (O2
loading and CO2 unloading)
 Exchange II
2. Transport of respiratory gases
Via mov’t of blood O2 from the lungs is
transported to the cell and tissues.
7
 Processes of respiration…
3. Internal respiration
(Cellular respiration)
• Gas exchange between
systemic capillaries & cells.
• (O2 unloading and CO2
loading)
 Exchange III.
• O2 is utilized for metabolic
activities.
• CO2 is produced as a result
of metabolic activities &
carried out from the cells. 8
The Principal Organs of respiratory system

9
Organization of the respiratory system

There are 2 methods of organization

1. The location of structures (ANATOMICAL)

a. Upper respiratory tract and

b. Lower respiratory tract

2. The function of structures (PHYSIOLOGICAL)

a. Conducting zone and

b. Respiratory zone
10
Organization of respiratory system…

 Anatomically

1. Upper respiratory tract

- nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx.

2. Lower respiratory tract

- trachea, bronchi (1O, 2O, 3O), bronchioles

(terminal & respiratory), alveolar ducts &

alveoli of the lungs. 11
12
Organization of respiratory system…
 Functionally

1. Conducting zone
 Conduits for air to reach the sites of gas exchange.
 Consists of upper & lower airways extending from
Nose  Pharynx  Larynx  Trachea 
Bronchi  Terminal bronchioles
Function of conducting zones
• Warms and humidifies inspired air
• Filters and cleans:
–Mucus is secreted to trap particles in the inspired air
–Mucus moved by cilia to be expectorated 13
Organization of respiratory system…
2. Respiratory zone
Site of gas exchange.
•Defined by the presence of alveoli
Begins at the respiratory
bronchioles
- Respiratory bronchioles
Alveolar ducts Alveolar
sacs Alveoli & their vascular
& nerve supplies

 There are about 250 million alveoli in 1 lung, numerous

number ↑surface area for gas exchange 14
Organization….

15
Functions of the Respiratory system
Primary Functions
Gas exchange
a. Extra-cellular respiration
b. Intracellular respiration
Secondary Functions
a. Upper respiratory tract-contribution to:
Deglutition, modification of inspired air,
Defense of body against noxious stimuli like inhaled
particles, acting as a filter to prevent blood clots,
Olfaction(Houses the cells that detect smell) and phonation
(Assists in the production of sounds for speech)
Conduction of air

16
Functions of the Respiratory system
b. Lower respiratory tract:
Acid-base balance
Protects the body against disease
Regulation of various humoral concentrations through the
endothelium,
 Formation of ACE through its vascular endothelium

Control of body temperature due to loss of evaporate

during expiration
• Excrete small amount of water and heat
17
Function of the Nose

 Only externally visible part that functions by:

1. Providing an airway for respiration

• Moistening, warming & filtering inspired air

2. Serving as a resonating chamber for speech

3. Housing the olfactory receptors [smell]

18 18
Nasal Cavity

Inspired air is:

Humidified
- by the high water content in the nasal cavity

- Sebaceous glands contribute to humidification of inspired air

Warmed
 by rich plexuses of capillaries

Filtered
oFrom coarse particles by the hairs known as Vibrissae

19 19
 Nasal Cavity…

 Ciliated mucosal cells remove contaminated

mucus

 Respiratory Mucosa

• Lines the nasal cavity

• Glands secrete mucus

containing lysozyme &

Defensins to destroy bacteria

 Olfactory Mucosa

• Lines the superior nasal cavity &

contains smell receptors

20
Mouth breathing Vs nasal breathing
Which one is preferable? Why?

• The mucus & cilia form muco-ciliary layer trap dusts, smokes,
pollen etc.
- thus, air born particles become filtered out.
• The epithelial lining due to high supply of capillary blood in
the nasal cavity also used to:

- Humidifying (moistening) & warming the air.

• Oral breathing lacks such advantages!

• nasal breathing is by far advantageous than oral breathing21

 Respiratory Zone /The exchange zone

• Defined by the presence of

-Respiratory bronchioles
- Alveolar ducts & alveolus
• Alveolar sacs are composed of
approximately 500 million alveoli:
- Account for most of the lungs’
volume
- Provide tremendous surface area for
gas exchange
Epithelium of the respiratory zone is
not ciliated, debris from the air can be
removed by macrophages that move
22
over the surfaces of the cells.
Respiratory Zone

23
Respiratory Zone…

Alveoli
• Surrounded by fine elastic fibers.
• Contain open pores that
•Connect adjacent alveoli.
• Allows air pressure throughout the lung to be
equalized.
• Facilitate exchange of blood gases
• House macrophages that
keep alveolar surfaces sterile

24
Alveoli…

Alveolar wall is made up of 3 cell types:

 1. Squamous alveolar cells (type I pnemocytes)

• Permit gas exchange by simple diffusion & secrete
Angiotensin Converting Enzyme (ACE).
• Thin, squamous epithelial cells that form 90% of the
alveolar surface

25
Alveoli…

2. Cuboidal great alveolar cells (type II pnemocytes)

constitute thicker granulocytes in alveolar walls &

They secrete a detergent-like lipoprotein called pulmonary

surfactant, which forms a thin film on the inside of the alveoli
and bronchioles.

about 5% of the alveolar cells

3. Type III pneumocytes

- Alveolar cavity contains large phagocytic cells called
macrophages
26
Exchange of O2 for CO2 occurs

27
Respiratory Membrane
• Each alveolus is surrounded by blood
capillaries supplied by the pulmonary
artery.
• Are also supplied with lymphatics &
Nerves
• The barrier between the alveolar air &
blood, called the respiratory membrane.
Air blood Barrier.
Alveolo-capillary membrane.
• consists only of
 The squamous type I alveolar cell
(Type I Pneumocytes)
 The squamous endothelial cell of the
capillary &
 Their fused basement membranes.
• These have a total thickness of only 28
29
30
Respiratory Membrane…

31
 Surfactant

• Produced by type II Pneumocytes

• Formation of a molecular layer at interface between the liquid
lining alveoli & air in the alveoli
• Modifies surface tension reduced surface tension
• Distensibility of lungs
• Reduced recoil force of lungs
• Prevention of alveolar collapse by balancing pressure
between small & large alveoli
• Reduction in the work of breathing

32
 Thoracic cage
• Makes solid casing around
the lung to protect it &
prevent its collapse by the
elastic recoil of its tissues.
• The external and internal
intercostal muscles lie & fill
the gap, between the ribs.

33
Motor Innervation of Respiratory Muscles

• Diaphragm: innervated by Phrenic nerves arising from C3-5

• Intercostals: innervated by intercostal nerves from thoracic

segments

• Tracheo-broncheal tree: innervated by:

- Parasympathetic→bronchial constriction and secretions

- Sympathetic→bronchial dilatation and decreased bronchial

secretions.

34
 Lung Mechanics

• It is a study of those forces and factors responsible respiration

• The Mechanics of Breathing involves all structures that

provide the forces of respiratory movement in the thoracic cage.

• Pulmonary Ventilation/Breathing is Mechanical process that

depends on volume changes in the thoracic cavity.

35
 Lung Mechanics ….

Volume changes lead to pressure changes, which lead to the

flow of gases to equalize pressure.

Boyle’s law
P = 1/ V
– The pressure & volume of gases is inversely related
 ↑ volume of a gas will ↓ pressure
 ↓ volume of gas will ↑ pressure
• If the lungs contain a quantity of gas and lung volume
increases, their intrapulmonary pressure(intra alveolar
pressure)—the pressure within the alveoli falls
• If lung volume decreases, intrapulmonary pressure rises

36 36
Pulmonary Ventilation/Breathing

• To make air flow into the lungs, it is necessary only to

lower the intrapulmonary pressure(alveolar pressure)
below the atmospheric pressure

• Raising the intrapulmonary pressure above

atmospheric pressure- air flow out again

• These changes are created as skeletal muscles of the

thoracic and abdominal walls change the volume of the
thoracic cavity
37
Mechanics (work) of breathing

Three different pressures are important

Atmospheric (barometric) pressure: exerted by air
• Diminishes with increasing altitude above sea level
B/c layer of air decreases in thickness above Earth’s surface
Intra-alveolar /intrapulmonary pressure : within
alveoli
• air quickly flows down its pressure gradient till
equilibration
Intrapleural / intrathoracic pressure: within pleural sac
• Air cannot enter or leave pleural cavity because it is
closed sac with no openings

38
39
Mechanics of respiration…

Fig. the three pressures in respiration process

40
Muscles of respiration

Groups of muscles
1. Diaphragm
2. Intercostal muscles

3. Abdominal auxiliary muscles

The lungs expanded and contracted in two ways:
1.Downward and upward movement of diaphragm
• This lengthen or shorten the chest cavity
1. Elevation and depression of the ribs
• Increase or decrease the anteroposterior
diameter of the chest cavity 41
Respiratory muscles…

42
Inspiration

 Itis an active process

Diaphragm & External Intercostal Muscles
(inspiratory muscles) contract & the rib cage rises
Lungs are stretched & intrapulmonary volume
increases
Intrapulmonary pressure drops below atmospheric
pressure (−1mm Hg)
Air flows into the lungs, down its pressure gradient,
until intrapulmonary pressure = atmospheric
pressure

43
 Active Contraction of: Contraction of:
↓ -diaphragm -external
Nerve impulse (1.5 cm-7cm) intercostals
↓ ↓ ↓
Contraction of: -Vertical -anteroposterior
-diaphragm diam. of diam.of thorax
thorax ↓
↓ Contributes 30% of
Contributes TV
70% of TV

NB: Accessory muscles are involved when TV is very large during inspiration.
45
46
• Deep inspiration is aided by the pectoralis minor,
sternocleidomastoid, and erector spinae muscles.

47
Expiration

Normal expiration during quiet breathing is an

energy-saving passive process that requires little
muscular contraction
 Inspiratory muscles relax & the rib cage descends
due to gravity
• Thoracic cavity volume decreases
Elastic lungs recoil passively & intrapulmonary
volume decreases.
Intrapulmonary pressure rises above atmospheric
pressure (+1 mm Hg)
Gases flow out of the lungs down the pressure
gradient until intrapulmonary pressure is 0.
48 48
49
 Expiration….

Passive at rest Active during exercise

Elastic recoil Surface tension Nerve Contraction

of: effect of: impulses of :

Stretched Fluid lining Contraction ant.

tissues in alveoli and of expiratory abdominal
thorax, lungs, respiratory muscles muscles
abdominal bronchioles (internal including
muscles ↓ intecostals) pelvic floor
↓ 70%TV muscles
30% of TV ↓
Upward
movement of
diaphragm.
50
Types of breathing

• There are two types of breathing:

1. Abdominal breathing

-Downward movement of diaphragm

displacement of abdominal viscera & abdominal
wall.

2. Thoracic breathing

- Movement of chest wall 51

Types of Breathing…
• Work of breathing is higher in thoracic than
abdominal breathing

• At rest abdominal breathing accounts for 70% &

thoracic breathing for 30% of pulmonary ventilation.

• In pregnancy the movement of the diaphragm is

limited & breathing becomes mainly thoracic.

• During deep breathing both abdominal & thoracic

breathing are equal in magnitude 52
Resistance to Airflow
• Flow = change in pressure/resistance (F = ΔP/R)

• Resistance affects airflow much the same as it does

blood flow

Factor that affects resistance:

Pulmonary compliance
The diameter of the bronchioles
Alveolar Surface Tension

53
Pulmonary compliance
• The Distensibility of the lungs
• Compliance- the change in lung volume relative to a given
change intrans pulmonary pressure
• It is an index of effort required to expand the lungs(to overcome
the recoil)
• Usually expressed in liters (volume of air) per centimeter of
water (pressure)
• Normal person the compliance of the lungs and thorax is 0.13
L/cm H2O

 1 cm H2O change in alveolar pressure, the volume changes by 0.13 L 54

Lung compliance
55
The Diameter of the Bronchioles
• Smooth muscle allows for considerable

• Bronchoconstriction-reduce air flow

Bronchoconstriction is triggered by airborne irritants, cold air,
parasympathetic stimulation, or histamine

• Bronchodilation — increase airflow

56
 Alveolar Surface Tension
• Factor that resists inspiration & promotes expiration is
the surface tension of the water in the alveoli and distal
bronchioles
• Alveoli are relatively dry, they have a thin film of
water over the epithelium
• Water molecules are attracted to each other by
hydrogen bonds-surface tension
• Force draws the walls of the alveoli inward toward the
lumen
• Alveoli would collapse with each expiration and
would strongly resist reinflation

57
Cont’d

A surfactant is an agent that disrupts the hydrogen

bonds of water and reduces surface tension.

• Surfactant has three important function

A.Lowers surface tension

B.Promote alveolar stability

C. Reduce capillary filtration

58
Respiratory Distress Syndrome

• Premature Infants often have a deficiency of

pulmonary surfactant and their alveoli are collapsed as
a result and experience great difficulty breathing
Respiratory distress syndrome (RDS)

59
Pulmonary Function Test

• Pulmonary function can be measured by having a

subject breath into a device called a spirometer,
• Spirometer recaptures the expired breath and
records
The rate & depth of breathing,
Speed of expiration, and
Rate of oxygen consumption

60
 Measurements of Ventilation….

Four measurements are called Respiratory Volumes:

Tidal volume (TV),
Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV),
Expiratory reserve volume (ERV) &
Residual volume (RV)

61
Respiratory Volumes

Tidal Volume /TV

• Volume of air inspired or expired during a normal
inspiration or expiration=500 mL
Inspiratory Reserve Volume /IRV
• Amount of air that can be inspired forcefully after
inspiration of the normal tidal volume = 3000 mL
Expiratory Reserve Volume/ERV
• Amount of air that can be forcefully expired after expiration
of the normal tidal volume= 1100 mL
Residual Volume/RV
• Volume of air still remaining in the respiratory passages and
lungs after the most forceful expiration= 1200 mL

62
Respiratory Capacities

• Obtained by adding two or more of the respiratory

volumes:
Inspiratory Capacity/ IC
• Amount of air that a person can inspire maximally
after a normal expiration =3500ml (IC=TV+IRV)
Functional Residual Capacity / FRC
• Amount of air remaining in the lungs at the end of a
normal expiration (= 2300 ml)- ERV+RV

63
Respiratory Capacities…
Vital Capacity /VC
• is the maximum volume of air that a person can expel from
the respiratory tract after a maximum inspiration
(approximately 4600 ml)
VC= TV + IRV+ERV
Total Lung Capacity /TLC
• is the sum of the inspiratory and expiratory reserve volumes
plus the tidal volume and the residual volume
(approximately 5800 ml)
TLC=IRV+TV+ERV+RV

64
Respiratory Volumes and Capacities

66
Functions of pulmonary function tests

1. Diagnose certain types of Structural/Functional lung

changes & lung disease
• Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
• ↑airway resistance. e.g. especially asthma, bronchitis
• Restrictive Pulmonary Disease
• ↓in total lung capacity
e.g. Fibrosis.
2. Find the cause of shortness of breath
3. Measure whether exposure to contaminants at work affects
lung function
4. Assess the effect of medication
5. Measure progress in disease treatment

67
Respiratory Volumes and Capacities….

Obstructive Disorders

 Do not reduce respiratory volumes

 Interfere with airflow

 Expiration either requires more effort or is less complete than

normal

 Expiration is more difficult and takes a longer time

 Diagnosed by tests that measure the rate of expiration

 One such test is the Forced Expiratory Volume (FEV)

68
Forced expiratory volume (FEV)

Airflow is measured by having the subject exhale as

rapidly as possible into a spirometer and measuring
forced expiratory volume (FEV)

• FEV the percentage of the vital capacity that can be

exhaled in a given time interval. (in the first second
(FEV1) is measured )

• A healthy adult should be able to expel 75% to 85% of

the vital capacity in 1.0 second
69
Restrictive Disorders

 Pulmonary fibrosis, stiffen the lungs

 Reduce Compliance and Vital Capacity.

 The rate at which the vital capacity can be forcibly

exhaled, however, is normal

71
72
Restrictive Disorders Vs obstructive lung disease

73
Minute Ventilation
Minute ventilation(Total ventilation )

• Total amount of air moved into and out (usually expiration)of the
respiratory system per minute

• It is equal to tidal volume times the respiratory rate

(TVRR )

• Tidal volume is approximately 500ml and respiratory rate is

approximately 12 breaths per minute

• Minute ventilation averages ≈ 6L/min

74
Alveolar Ventilation

• Air delivered to the respiratory zone per minute

• If a person inhales 500ml of air and 150ml of it is dead
air, then 350mL of air ventilates the alveoli

• Multiplying this by the respiratory rate gives the

alveolar ventilation rate (AVR) i.e.

• E.g., 350 ml/breath x12 breaths/min₌ 4,200 ml/min.

• The alveolar ventilation rate is a major factor affecting

the conc. of O2 & CO2 in the alveoli 75
Dead space
1. Anatomic dead space
• Conduction air ways are fixed dead space
• It volume is 150 ml
2. Alveolar dead space
• Unperfused but ventilated alveoli
• Pulmonary embolism in creases
3. Physiologic dead space
• Sum of anatomic and alveolar dead space
• In diseases this becomes large resulting in hypercapnea and
hypoxemia

76
deeeee • Patterns of Breathing

77
Exchange/Diffusion of Gases in the Lung
Diffusion of Gases:
O2 & CO2 move passively from a region of higher to
one of lower concentration
Fick’s law, the rate of transfer of a gas through a sheet
of tissue is:
1. Directly Proportional to:
-Tissue surface area
-Partial pressure difference between the 2 sides.
-Fluid temperature
-Solubility coefficient of the gas

78
 Exchange/Diffusion of gases in the Lung….
2. Inversely proportional to:
- fluid viscosity.
- tissue thickness.
- square root of
molecular weight of the gas.

79
Exchange/Diffusion of gases in the Lung….

• Diffusion of gases through the respiratory membrane

depends on:
A) Properties of gases
- Solubility coefficient of gas, absolute temperature
of fluid, MW of gas
B) Lung Properties
1. Thickness of path length of membrane (L)
2. Size of alveolar surface area (A)
3. Permeability of membrane
4. Fluid viscosity in lung (n)
5. Pulmonary capillary blood volume
80
Exchange/Diffusion of gases in the Lung….
C) Other Factors
1. Partial pressure difference b/n alveoli & capillaries (p)
2. Alveolar ventilation (VA) ; contact or transit time of
gas
3. Age & Exercise
4. Disease conditions
- alveolar fibrosis, asbestosis , byssinosis, airway or capillary
obstruction, edema, etc.
Relationship between ventilation & pulmonary
capillary flow
o Ventilation &
o Pulmonary capillary blood flow Gas exchange
81
Gas exchange…
Ventilation-perfusion Coupling
Ventilation-perfusion coupling is the ability to match ventilation and
perfusion to each other
Gas exchange requires
 Good Ventilation of the alveolus Good Perfusion of its
capillaries
lungs have a ventilation-perfusion ratio of about 0.8, a flow of 4.2 L of air
and 5.5 L of blood per minute (at rest)
• Ratio is somewhat higher in the apex of the lung
• Lower in the base because more blood is drawn toward the base by
gravity
• If part of a lung is poorly ventilated because of tissue destruction or
airway obstruction, there is little point in directing much blood there.
• This blood would leave the lung carrying less oxygen than it should.
• poor ventilation causes local constriction of the pulmonary arteries,
reducing blood flow to that area and redirecting this blood to better
ventilated alveoli. 82
83
 Gas Transport
Process of carrying gases (O2 & CO2 ) from the alveoli
to the systemic tissues & vice versa

84
 Oxygen Transport

• Oxygen is transported by:

1. Hemoglobin (97%) &
2. Dissolved form in plasma (3%)

• Hemoglobin is almost completely saturated when PO2

is 80 mmHg or above

• At Lower Partial Pressures, hemoglobin releases O2

• Substance 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate ↑the ability of

hemoglobin to release O2 85
Oxygen-Hemoglobin Saturation Curve

86
 Oxygen Transport cont’d…

O2 Loading rxn

O2 unloading
reaction

87
 Hemoglobin (Hgb)
• Saturated hemoglobin – when all four heme of the molecule are
bound to oxygen

• Partially saturated hemoglobin – when one to three hemes are

bound to oxygen

• The rate that Hgb binds & releases oxygen is regulated by:

• PO2, Temperature,

• Blood pH, PCO2, &

• Concentration of DPG

• These factors ensure adequate delivery of O2 to tissue cells

88
89
Fig. Oxygen–Hb (O= Fully saturated hemoglobin molecule–Hb) dissociation
(saturation) curve 90
 Oxygen Transport…
 A shift of the curve to the left because of
• an ↑ in PH,
• a ↓ in CO2 or a ↓ in temperature
- results in an ↑ in the ability of Hb to hold O2 .
 A shift of the curve to the right because of
• a ↓ in PH,
• an ↑ in CO2 or an ↑ in temperature
• ↑PO2 gradient
- results in a ↓ in the ability of hemoglobin to hold
O2

91
 Temperature effects

 An↑ in To results in a ↓in

the ability of Hb to hold
O2.

92
 Fetal Hb
has a higher
affinity for
O2 than
does
maternal
Hg

93
94
95
Factors Affecting O2 Dissociation
Factors Right shift of curve Left shift of curve

PH ￬ 

Temperature  ￬

PCO2  ￬

2, 3-DPG  ￬

96
 Transport of Carbon Dioxide

• Carbon Dioxide is transported in the form of;

1. Bicarbonate -70%
2. Carbaminohemoglobin - 23%
3. Dissolved in plasma - 7%

• Haldane effect
- Hemoglobin that has released O2 binds more readily

to CO2 than hemoglobin that has O2 bound to it

97
98
Transport of Carbon Dioxide…

99
Transport of Carbon Dioxide…

In tissue capillaries:
- CO2 combines with water inside RBCs to form
carbonic acid which dissociates to form Bicarbonate
ions & Hydrogen ions.
In lung capillaries:
• bicarbonate ions & hydrogen ions move into RBCs
& chloride ions move out.
• Bicarbonate ions combine with hydrogen ions to
form carbonic acid, which is converted to carbon
dioxide & water.

100
 Transport of Carbon Dioxide…

• The CO2 diffuses out of the RBCs.

• ↑ in plasma CO2, ↓ blood pH

• Respiratory system regulates blood pH by regulating

plasma carbon dioxide levels

101
Regulation of Blood PH level
• There are 3 factors in this process:
 Lungs
 Kidneys
 Buffers
• So what exactly is pH?
- pH is the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+)

102
Respiratory Regulation of Acid-base balance

• Normal blood pH is set between 7.35–7.45, which is

slightly alkaline or "basic".

• If the pH of our blood <7.2 or >7.6 then very soon our

brain would cease functioning normally & we would be
in big trouble

• Blood pH levels <6.9 or >7.9 are usually fatal if they

last for more than a short time

103
Neural Control of Ventilation

• Heartbeat and breathing are rhythmic processes in the body

• The heart has an internal pacemaker
• Breathing, by contrast, depends on repetitive stimuli from the
brain
There are two reasons for this:
(1) Skeletal muscles do not contract without nervous stimulation
(2) Breathing involves the coordinated action of multiple
muscles and
• Requires a central coordinating mechanism to ensure that
they all work together

104
Regulation of Ventilation ….

• Two major respiratory centers in the brain stem are:

 Medulla & Pons

• Basic rhythm of respiration set is coordinated by the

inspiratory area ,
• Inputs from other brain regions
• Receptors in the peripheral nervous system, can
modify the rhythmic

105
Neural Control of Ventilation…

Breathing control consists of three basic components:

1. Control centers- Neural

2. Sensors (receptors)-peripheral and central

3. Effectors- Lungs, Respiratory Muscles

 Neural control voluntary and involuntary

Motor cortex of the cerebrum provide voluntary control
Reflex (involuntary) regulation is automatic regulation
 medullary, pontine, ancillary and hormonal mechanisms
106
Neural Control of Ventilation

107
 1. Control center
Automatic Control of Unconscious Breathing
A. The Medulla Oblongata

 Contains inspiratory (I) neurons, which fire during

inspiration, and expiratory (E) neurons, which fire during
forced expiration
 Fibers from these neurons
 Travel down the spinal cord and
 Synapse with lower motor neurons in the cervical to
thoracic regions
 From here, nerve fibers, then, travel in the phrenic nerves to
the diaphragm & intercostal nerves to the intercostal
muscles
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Regulation of Respiration con’t …..

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The medulla has two respiratory nuclei

1. Inspiratory center or dorsal respiratory group

(DRG)
• is composed primarily of I neurons, which stimulate
the muscles of inspiration.
• Responsible for rhythmic breathing
• I neurons regulate activity of phrenic nerve.
• Project to and stimulate spinal interneurons that
innervate respiratory muscles.
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The medulla has two respiratory nuclei...
• The more frequently they fire, the more motor units are
recruited and the more deeply you inhale.
• If they fire longer than usual, each breath is prolonged and
the respiratory rate is slower.
• When they stop firing, elastic recoil of the lungs and thoracic
cage produces passive expiration.

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 2.Expiratory Center, or Ventral Respiratory
Group (VRG)
• It has expiratory neurons

• Expiratory neurons inhibit the inspiratory center when deeper

expiration is needed

• Expiration is a passive process that occurs when the I neurons are

inhibited

• Conversely, the inspiratory center inhibits the expiratory center

when an unusually deep inspiration is needed

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 B. Pons
• Activities of medullary rhythmicity center
is influenced by pons
The pons regulate ventilation
Pneumotaxic center in the upper pons and
Apneustic center in the lower pons
• Apneustic center:
–Promotes inspiration by stimulating the I
neurons in the medulla
• Pneumotaxic Center:
–Antagonizes the apneustic center
–Inhibits inspiration

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 The Pneumotaxic Center
• Sends a continual stream of inhibitory impulses to the
inspiratory center of the medulla
• “switch off ” I-neurons (limits duration of inspiration)

• When impulse frequency rises, inspiration lasts as little as 0.5

second and the breathing becomes faster and shallower

• Conversely, when impulse frequency declines, breathing is

slower and deeper, with inspiration lasting as long as 5 seconds

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Apneustic center

• Functions of the apneustic center are hypothetical and its

connections are therefore indicated by broken lines

• As indicated by the plus & minus signs, the apneustic center

stimulates the inspiratory center, while pneumotaxic center
inhibits it

• The inspiratory & expiratory centers inhibit each other

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 Afferent Connections to the Brainstem

 Brainstem respiratory centers receive input from

limbic system,
hypothalamus,
chemoreceptors, &
lungs
 limbic system & hypothalamus allows pain & emotions to
affect respiration—for example, in gasping, crying, and
laughing.
 Anxiety often triggers an uncontrollable about hyperventilation.
 This expels CO2 from the body faster than it is produced.
 As blood CO2 levels drop, the pH rises and causes the cerebral
arteries to constrict.
 The brain thus receives less perfusion, & dizziness and fainting
may result 118
 Afferent Connections to the Brainstem…
• Chemoreceptors in the brainstem & arteries monitor blood pH, CO2, & O2
levels
• They transmit signals to the respiratory centers that adjust pulmonary
ventilation to keep these variables within homeostatic limits.
• The Vagus nerves( X ) transmit sensory signals from the respiratory
system to the inspiratory center.
• Irritants in the airway, such as smoke, dust, noxious fumes, or mucus,
stimulate vagal afferent fibers.
• The medulla then returns signals that result in Bronchoconstriction or
Coughing

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Afferent Connections to the Brainstem…
• Stretch receptors in the bronchial tree and visceral pleura
monitor inflation of the lungs.

• Excessive inflation triggers the inflation reflex, a protective

somatic reflex that strongly inhibits the I neurons and stops
inspiration.

• In infants, this may be a normal mechanism of transition

from inspiration to expiration, but after infancy it is
activated only by extreme stretching of the lungs.
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Regulation of Respiration cont’d…..

2. Receptor mechanisms

 Chemoreceptors
 Peripheral Chemoreceptors
 Central Chemoreceptors

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Chemoreceptors

• It is Control ventilation by PO2, PCO2 & H+

• Achieved via 2 types chemoreceptors

1) Peripheral
• Located in the carotid bodies and aortic bodies

2) Central
• Located on the ventral surface of the medulla
• Controls breathing via nerve fibers to the
respiratory control centers 122
Chemoreceptors

1.Peripheral chemoreceptors
 Detect changes in arterial:
• PO2: exclusively
• PCO2
• H+
• ↑PCO2 →Chemoreceptor → generation of AP →
conduction of AP via sensory neurons → respiratory
control center → respiratory muscle → ↑ventilation
(CO2 blown off ) → ↓PCO2
• ↑H+ (keto or lactic acids) chemoreceptor →resp.
control center → ↑ventilation → ↓PCO2 → ↓ H+
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Peripheral chemoreceptors……
• Control of respiration in mammals is regulated by
changes in PCO2 (not PO2)
• Peripheral O2 chemoreceptors do not contribute in
regulating normal ventilation unless arterial PO2 falls
below 60 mm Hg
• Peripheral O2, CO2 and H+ chemoreceptors are
weakly responsive and play a minor role in
controlling respiration
• Factors increasing activity of chemoreceptors:
• ↓ PO2, ↓PH, ↓Carotid BF, ↑PCO2, ↑Blood temp.
• Factors decreasing activity of chemoreceptors:
• ↑PO2, ↑PH, ↑Carotid BF,↓PCO2,↓Blood temp. 124
Regulation of Respiration cont’ …..

Fig. Location and innervation of

the peripheral chemoreceptors in
the carotid & aortic bodies
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 Regulation of Respiration con’t …..
Central chemoreceptors
• Most important regulator of ventilation
• Do not monitor changes in PCO2 directly
• Respond to changes in CO2-induced production of
H+ in cerebrospinal fluid (brain interstitial fluid)
• Blood-brain barrier allows the diffusion of CO2 but is
impermeable to H+
• Factors increasing activity:
• ↑ arterial or CSF H+ emanating from PCO2.
• i.e. change of arterial PH due to CO2 only is
reflected in the CSF PH
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Central chemoreceptors

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Thank YOU!!

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