INTRODUCTION

The history of panel boards in machines is intertwined with the

evolution of industrialization and technology. Initially, during
the industrial revolution, control systems were basic, relying on
manual switches and levers. However, as industries grew and
machines became more complex, there was a need for
sophisticated control and monitoring methods.

With the advent of electricity in the late 19th century, panel

boards emerged as crucial components for automating
processes. These early panel boards facilitated functions like
starting, stopping, and regulating speed, streamlining industrial
operations.

As the 20th century progressed, panel boards became more

advanced with the development of relay the logic systems and
the integration of electronic components. This led to creation of
digital control systems, powered by microprocessors and
programmable logic controllers (PLCs), which
unprecedented levels of and automation and customization.
Modern panel boards feature touch screen displays and
intuitive software, empowering operators to monitor manage
machines with ease.

Panel boards diversified across industries, finding applications

in manufacturing, transportation, utilities, and infrastructure.
They became indispensable for automating processes
previously deemed unimaginable. Looking forward, panel
boards are poised for further innovation with the rise of
artificial intelligence and the Internet of Things (IoT). These
advancements promise autonomous systems guided by real-
time data analytics and predictive algorithms. As machines
evolve, so too will the role of panel boards, ensuring they
remain integral to the ongoing progress of industrialization and
technology.

Panel boards are very essential equipment in electrical systems.

They are used to control light, heat or power circuits. These are
the protection branch circuits from overloads and short circuits.
Panel boards provide circuit control and over current
protection. We know that electrical power should be
distributed properly to the building without any damage or any
other disaster, this requirements are getting fulfilled by panel
boards. So, panel boards are very important for the electrical
systems.
An Electric panel board is a component of an electrical
distribution system which divides an electrical power
feed into branch circuits, while providing a protective
circuit breaker or fuse for each circuit, in a common
enclosure. A panel board services to protect branch
circuits from overloads and short circuits.
 TYPES OF PANEL BOARDS

1.Control panels:

Control panel boards are specialized electrical distribution

systems that are used to control and manage industrial
processes. They are typically used in industrial settings such as
factories, power plants, and other heavy industrial facilities.

Control panel boards typically include a main breaker or series

of main breakers, as well as individual circuit breakers for
branch circuits. They also include control components such as
programmable logic controllers (PLCs), sensors, and actuators
that are used to monitor and control industrial processes. The
circuit control components of an electrical panel board include
relays for protection, meters, alarm circuits, PLCs, SMPS, small
power sources, etc. The maintenance operator will position
these panels nearby or keep an eye on the control panel.
2. Power control centre panels:

Power control centre [PCC] panel boards typically include a

main breaker or series of main breakers, as well as individual
circuit breakers for branch circuits. They also include control
components such as relays, protection devices, and metering
equipment that are used to monitor and control the high
voltage electrical power distribution system.
PCC panel boards are used to control and distribute high
voltage electrical power throughout a facility, protect against
overloads and short circuits, and monitor and control the
electrical power distribution system. They are also used to
provide isolation between different parts of the electrical
power distribution system and to control the flow of electrical
power.
Advantages of Power Control Centre:

This Power Control Centre is compact, safe, and reliable. Users

will find the Power Control Centre to be userfriendly. Power
Control Center with single and multiple incomers, bus couplers,
with proper interlocking on the main LT panel. The system
provides the required protection, fault indications, and
interlocking. The Power Control Center is offered in a variety of
designs, such as top, middle, and bottom horizontal bus
chambers, panels with aluminum/copper bus bars,
3.Motor control centre [MCC] panel boards:

MCC (motor control centre) panel boards are electrical

distribution systems that are used to control and protect
electric motors in industrial settings. They typically consist of a
series of panels, each containing a combination of circuit
breakers, fuses, and other components that are used to control
and protect the electric motors.

MCC panel boards are typically used in manufacturing facilities,

power plants, and other industrial settings where large electric
efficient control and protection of electric motors, and can
becustomized to meet the specific requirements of a particular
application.
Motor control centres are usually for low voltage 3 phase
alternating current motors from 200 v to 600v. Medium voltage
motor control centre are made for large motors running at
2300v to around 15000v using vacuum contactors for switching
and with separate compartments for power switching and
control.

Advantages of Motor control Center :

Using Motor control Centers, components can be coordinated

from a single point. If compared to separately mounted
controls, pre assembled and pretested electrical distribution
and motor control equipment is generally less expensive to
install. The Motor control Center requires significantly less
line side power wiring than separate controls, making them
easier to install. An Motor control Center’s packaging is space-
efficient, and it offers excellent configuration flexibility.
Maintenance is also centrally managed. Electrical
component
isolation and fault containment are excellent features of Motor
control Centers.
 Necessity of panel boards

Electrical control panels, also known as industrial control

panels, are essential for industrial automation because they
provide higher-level monitoring and control of production
machinery. These panels can regulate and manage electrical
and mechanical operations, such as lighting control, motor
control, temperature management, and process control.
An AC panel board, also known as a PCB, converts AC voltage
from a wall outlet into DC voltage that can be used by devices
and appliances. This process also helps reduce energy
consumption by reducing losses in the conversion process. An
AC control board is the physical switch that controls and
coordinates an HVAC system's components. It's usually a
custom panel with knobs and buttons that allow users to
control the AC system's functions, such as temperature and fan
intensity. In residential buildings, AC heater control panels
allow homeowners to adjust the cooling or heating levels based
on the weather conditions outside.

AC (alternating current) panel boards, also known as

distribution boards or breaker panels, are essential
components in electrical systems for several reasons:
1. Distribution of Power
2. Over current Protection Devices
3. Safety
4. Installation Location
5. Rating and Capacity
6. Accessibility and Working Space

7.Distribution of Power: AC panel boards distribute electrical

power from the main source (such as a generator or grid
connection) to various circuits within a building or facility. They
serve as centralized points where electricity is divided and
routed to different areas, rooms, or equipment.

8.Over current Protection Devices: Panel boards must be

equipped with circuit breakers or fuses to provide over current
protection for individual circuits. These devices should be
properly sized and rated to protect against overloads and short
circuits.

9.Safety: Properly installed and maintained panel boards

enhance electrical safety by isolating faults and preventing the
spread of electrical hazards. They help ensure that electrical
systems operate within their design limits and comply with
safety.
4.Installation Location: Panel boards should be installed in a
suitable location that is easily accessible for maintenance and
inspection. They should be mounted securely to a non-
combustible surface and kept clear of obstructions.

5.Rating and Capacity: Panel boards must be appropriately

sized to handle the electrical load of the building or facility they
serve. This includes considering factors such as the maximum
demand, voltage, and frequency of the electrical system.

6.Accessibility and Working Space: Adequate working space

must be provided around the panel board to allow for safe
operation, maintenance, and inspection. This includes
maintaining clearances in front of and above the panel board
asspecified by electrical codes.

Overall, AC panel boards play a crucial role in the efficient,

safe, and reliable distribution of electrical power within
buildings, industries and facilities, making them indispensable
components of modern electrical systems.
WIRING OF AC MACHINES
LABORATORY
LAYOUT OF AC MACHINES LABORATORY
DIMENSIONS OF AC MACHINES LABORATORY
DETAILS OF MOTORS PRESENT IN AC MACHINES
LABORATORY

DC MG SET (SHUNT):

Generator no: 803186

Rating: 3.0KW
Speed: 1500RPM
Rated current: 13.35A
Voltage: 220V

DC SHUNT MOTOR:

Generator no: 204567

BHP: 3.0
Speed: 1440RPM
Rated current: 13A
Voltage: 220V

DC COMPOUND MOTOR:

BHP: 3.0
Speed: 1440RPM
Rated
current:13A
Voltage: 220V

3 PH SCHRAGE
MOTOR:

Rating: 2.6KW
Speed:
2100RPM,640RP
3 PH AC ALTERNATOR:

Alternator: AC MOTOR:
Rating: 3.5KVA Rating : 7.5HP
Voltage: 400V Voltage: 230V
Speed: 1500RPM Speed: 1500RPM

DC MG SET(shunt/series):

Rating: 5BHP
Voltage:220V
Speed:
1500RPM

3 PH AC SLIP
RING
INDUCTION
MOTOR:

Rating: 3.73KW
Voltage: 230/400V

3 PH POLE
CHANGING
INDUCTION
MOTOR:

Rating: 3.7KW
Speed: 2860RPM
Rated current: 7A

1 PH AC UNIVERSAL MOTOR:

Voltage: 230VAC,150VDC
Voltage: 230V
Rated current: 6.2A
Speed: 1425RPM

SPLIT PHASE
INDUCTION
MOTOR:

Voltage: 230V
Rated
current:6.2A
Speed: 1500RPM
 ESTIMATION
220V DC MAINS

 MCB 32A,16A,20A,40A
 KNIFE SWITCHES 12VDC,22VDC
 AMMETER 1-25A,1-100A
 VOLTMETER 1-80V,1-300V
 STATER 20/50V,3.4/0.59A,23.5OHM
 DISCHARGES
 FREQUENCY METER
 DYNAMO AUTOMATIC BATTERY CHARGE
SWITCH 20A,44.34V
 DANGER BOARD 440V
 INDICATION LAMP(red, yellow, blue)
 FUSES 220VDC,12VDC

400V 3 PH AC MAINS

 VOLTMETER 0-600V
 FREQUENCY METER 40-60HZ
 AMMETER 0-100A
 ISOLATORS 4POLE,240/415V

230V 1 PH AC MAINS

 ISOLATORS 2POLE,240/415V,32A,40A
 VOLTMETER 0-300V
 AMMETER 0-50A
 COST CALCULATIONS
MATERIALS RATINGS QUANTITY SINGLE TOTAL
ITEM COST COST
MCB 32A,16A,20A,40A 4,4,2,5 150,125,1 600,500,2
35, 240 70,1
200

KNIFE 12VDC,22VDC 1,1 100,160 100,160

SWITCHES

AMMETER 1-25A,1-100A 1,1 300,300 300,300

VOLTMETER 1-80V,1-300V 1,1 200,200 200,200

STATER 20/50V,3.4/0.59A,23 1 600 600

.
5OHM

DISCHAR 1 1450 1450

GES

FREQUENCY 1 650 650

METER

DYNAMO 20A,44.34V 1 1500 1500

AUTOMATIC
BATTERY
CHARGE
SWITCH

DANGER 440V 1 200 200

BOARD

INDICATI ON - 140 140

LAMP

FUSES 220VDC,12VDC 1,1 160,100 160,100

VOLTMETER 0-600V 1 800 800

FREQUENCY 40-60HZ 1 800 800

AMMETER 0-100A 1 800 800

ISOLATORS 4POLE,240/415V 12 600 7200

ISOLATORS 2POLE,240/415V,32A, 2,3 600,1700 1200,5100

40A

AMMETER 0-50A 1 800 800

VOLTMETER 0-300V 1 300 300

TOTAL COST:
25610/-
 Function of AC Panel Board

An AC panel board, also known as a distribution board or

breaker panel, is a fundamental component in electrical
systems, responsible for the distribution and control of
alternating current (AC) power within residential, commercial,
and industrial buildings. It serves as a centralized hub where
incoming electrical power is divided into multiple circuits, each
serving different areas or loads within the facility. The primary
functions of an AC panel board include power distribution,
circuit protection, control and monitoring, safety and isolation,
voltage regulation, integration with control systems, emergency
power management, and compliance with standards and
regulations.

Power Distribution and Circuit Protection:

One of the core functions of an AC panel board is power

distribution. It receives high-voltage AC power from the main
electrical supply and distributes it to various circuits throughout
the building. This distribution is achieved through circuit
breakers or fuses, which control the flow of electricity to
individual circuits. Circuit breakers are designed to
automatically trip or disconnect the circuit when they detect
abnormal conditions such as over current, short circuits, or
faults. This protects the connected equipment and wiring from
damage and minimizes the risk of electrical fires.

Control and Monitoring, Safety and Isolation:

AC panel boards often incorporate switches, relays, and other

control devices to manage the operation of electrical
equipment and systems. They may also feature monitoring
features such as meters or sensors to track voltage, current,
power factor, and other electrical parameters. This enables
proactive maintenance and troubleshooting, ensuring the
efficient operation of the electrical system. Furthermore, AC
panel boards provide a means for safely isolating electrical
circuits and equipment for maintenance, repair, or inspection.
Disconnect switches or breakers allow authorized personnel to
de-energize specific circuits or sections of the electrical system,
minimizing the risk of electric shock or injury.

Voltage Regulation, Integration with Control Systems,

Emergency Power Management, Compliance:

In some applications, AC panel boards may include voltage

regulation devices such as stabilizers or regulators to maintain a
stable voltage level within acceptable limits. This ensures
consistent and reliable operation of sensitive electrical
equipment. Additionally, AC panel boards can be integrated into
building automation systems or control networks, allowing
centralized monitoring and control of electrical distribution and
consumption. Integration with control systems enables remote
access, automated scheduling, and optimization of energy
usage. In facilities equipped with emergency power systems, AC
panel boards incorporate transfer switches or interlocks to
transition between primary and backup power sources during
outages, ensuring continuity of critical operations. Finally, AC
panel boards must comply with relevant electrical codes,
standards, and regulations to ensure safety, reliability, and
compatibility with other electrical equipment and systems.
Manufacturers design and construct panel boards to meet
specific industry standards and certifications, verifying their
performance and suitability for intended application.
 Panel board components

Panel board components are very essential for the panel

manufacture. In fact, without components the manufacturing
of panel isn’t possible. There are many components used in the
manufacturing of panel boards. Some of the important
components are:-

1. Circuit breaker:

A circuit breaker is an electrical safety device designed to

protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by an over
current or short circuit. Its basic function is to interrupt
current flow to protect equipment and to prevent the risk of
fire. Unlike a fuse, which operates once and then must be
replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset (either manually or
automatically) to resume normal operation.

Circuit breakers are made in varying sizes, from small devices

that protect low current circuits or individual household
appliances, to large switchgear designed to protect high voltage
circuits feeding an entire city. There are different types of
Circuit breakers used in panel boards for different
requirements.

2. Isolator:

The isolator is a switch which isolates the part of the circuit

system when it is required. Electrical isolators are the separate
part of the system that is created for the safe maintenance.
Isolators are generally used at the end of the breaker to repair
or to replace. Generally used as a main switch or incomer inside
a distribution board, an isolator does not offer any protection. It
is used to completely disconnect the circuit from the electrical
supply in order to achieve absolute isolation. The functions of
the isolator are:
1) Switching: ON / OFF

2) Isolation
 3.BUS BAR:

Bus bars are electrical conductors used to distribute power

within industrial panels, switchgear, and other electrical
equipment. They are typically made of copper or aluminium
and come in various sizes and shapes to fit different
applications. Bus bars are used to connect multiple circuits
together and provide a central point for power distribution.
They are typically bolted or welded to the panel, and electrical
devices such as breakers, fuses, and contactors are connected
to them to provide power to the different circuits. Bus bars can
also be used to ground equipment and provide a path for fault
current.
Bus bars are typically made of copper or aluminium and are
used to connect the main power source to the panel's circuit
breakers, fuses, and other components. Bus bars can be used in
both low and high voltage systems and are available in different
sizes and configurations to meet the specific needs of the
application. They are commonly used in industrial settings such
as factories, power plants, and other large-scale operations
4.Motor protection circuit breaker [MPCB]:

A Motor Protection Circuit Breaker (MPCB) is a type of electrical

protection device that is specifically designed to protect motors
and other equipment that use electrical power. These devices
are typically used in industrial and commercial settings where
large motors and other electrical equipment are used.

MPCBs are designed to protect motors from damage caused by

electrical faults such as overloads, short circuits, and ground
faults. They can also protect the electrical system and other
equipment in the event of a motor stall or failure. They are
equipped with thermal-magnetic or electronic trip units that
can detect over current, under current, unbalance current and
earth fault.
MPCBs can be used as a replacement for traditional fuses or
circuit breakers and offer several advantages such as precise
tripping, remote monitoring and control, and increased safety.
They also provide protection against phase failure, phase
unbalance and under voltage.
MPCBs are usually connected in the supply side of the motor to
provide protection and are typically rated for specific amperage
and voltage levels, and are available in various sizes and
configurations to suit different types of motors and equipment
5. Power contractor:

A power contractor is a device used to control the flow of

electrical power to a load, such as a panel. It can be used to
turn power on or off, or to switch between different sources of
power. The specific type of power contractor used in a panel
will depend on the application and the electrical requirements
of the panel. Some common types of power contractors used in
panels include circuit breakers, contactors, and relays.
Devices switching more than 15 amperes or in circuits rated
more than a few kilowatts are usually called contactors. Unlike
relays, contactors are designed with features to control and
suppress the arc produced when interrupting heavy motor
currents. Power Contactors are used to control electric motors,
lighting, heating, capacitor banks, thermal evaporators, and
other electrical loads.
6. Auxilary contractor:

Auxiliary contacts are designed. for low voltage and low current
only. An auxiliary contact (or switch) is an additional contact
that forms a part of a circuit to increase the amount of
electricity that can flow through the system. Auxiliary contacts
serve several purposes for motor-operated devices and
electrical professionals regarding safety and protection against
electrical faults. Auxiliary contact that forms a part of a circuit
to increase the amount of electricity that can flow through the
system. Auxiliary contacts serve several purposes for motor-
operated devices and electrical professionals regarding safety
and protection against electrical faults. Auxiliary contacts also
called helping contacts which used for control, indication,
alarm, and feedback circuits. Make loop circuits for Motor
Starter, Controller, etc.

7.Over-load relay [OLR]:

It works by monitoring the current flowing througha circuit and
tripping (disconnecting) the circuit if the current exceeds a
certain threshold. This helps to prevent damage to the
electrical equipment and reduce the risk of fire. Overload
relays are typically used in conjunction with other types of
protective devices, such as circuit breakers and fuses, to
provide multiple layers of protection for electrical systems.

8.Current transformer:

A current transformer (CT) is a type of transformer that is used

to measure the electrical current in a circuit. It is typically used
in electrical panels as part of a metering or protective system.
The current transformer works by sensing the current flowing
through the primary winding, which induces a current in the
secondary winding. The ratio of the primary to secondary
current is used to calculate the actual current flowing in the
circuit. The secondary winding is connected to a measuring
instrument, such as an ammeter or a relay, which can then be
used to monitor or control the circuit. CT's are also used in
protection scheme as they provide the necessary current
information to trip the breaker in case of over current or earth
fault. They also used to provide the input to the protection
relay to detect and isolate the faulted section of the power.
9.Terminal blocks:

Terminal blocks are devices used in electrical panels to connect

and disconnect wires. They are used to make electrical
connections between wires and other components, such as
circuit breakers and relays. Terminal blocks typically consist of a
base and a set of terminals, which are typically made of copper
or other conductive materials. Wires are inserted into the
terminals and secured with a screw or other fastening
mechanism. Terminal blocks can be used to connect a single
wire or multiple wires, and they can be used to connect wires
of different gauges. Terminal blocks are also used to organize
and label the connections, making it easy to identify and
troubleshoot issues in the system. They are also used to make
connections between different sections of the panel.

10.Neutral links:

Neutral links in electrical panels refer to the connection point

where the neutral wire is connected. The neutral wire is the
wire that carries the electrical current back to the source in a
circuit, balancing out the flow of electricity. In a panel, neutral
links are typically connected to a neutral bus bar, which is used
to distribute the neutral current to various circuits within the
panel. Neutral links are important for ensuring the proper
functioning of electrical circuits and for maintaining safety in
the electrical system.

11.Conductors:

In electrical panels, conductors are used to transfer electrical

current from the power source to the various circuits within the
panel. The most common type of conductors used in electrical
panels are copper and aluminium wires. Copper is a highly
conductive metal and is often used for the main power feeder
wires in the panel. It is also used for the neutral and grounding
wires.
Aluminium is also used as a conductor in electrical panels, but it
is less conductive than copper and is typically used in
larger
gauges to compensate for its lower conductivity. Both Copper
and Aluminium conductors are used in panels but it depends on
the application, cost, and the ampacity of the wire. Copper is
typically more expensive than aluminium and has a
higher
ampacity, but aluminium is more durable and resistant
to corrosion.
12. End plates & end stoppers:

Generally while inserting the Terminal Blocks to the panel

board the one side of the terminal block will not covered, So to
cover the other end of the terminal blocks the End Plates are
used. The terminal blocks are available in different sizes as per
our requirement. So to cover all the terminal blocks the end
plates are also available at different sizes.
End stoppers are used to fix the terminal blocks at a place.
While a bunch of terminal blocks are inserted to the channel
the end stoppers are placed at the both ends of the terminal
blocks. So, thereby the terminal blocks are adjusted between
the 2 end stoppers.

13.Indication lamps:

Red indication lamp:- In panel boards, red lamp is used for

ON indication.

Amber indication lamp:- In panel boards, amber lamp is used

for TRIP indication.

Green indication lamp:- In panel boards, green lamp is used

for OFF indication.
 14.RYBE indication lamps:

Red indication lamp:- In panel boards, red lamp is used

for R-phaseindication.
Yellow indication lamp:- In panel boards, yellow lamp is used
for Y-phaseindication.
Blue indication lamp:- In panel boards, blue lamp is used
for B-phaseindication.
Green indication lamp:- In panel boards, blue lamp is
used for earth indication.
 15. Push buttons:

Red push button:- In panel boards, red push button is used forSTOP
indication.
Green push button:- In panel boards, green push button is usedfor
START indication.

16.Emergency push button:

An emergency push button in a panel is typically used to initiate

an emergency shutdown or alert in a facility or industrial
setting. When pressed, the button sends a signal to the control
system to shut off power or activate alarms. This is a safety
feature designed to quickly respond to emergency situations
such as fire, chemical spills, or other hazards. The exact
function of the button may vary depending on the specific
application and the design of the control system.
17.Motor Protection Device [MPD]:

A motor protection device is a device that is used to protect an

electric motor from damage caused by over current,
overvoltage, and other abnormal conditions. These devices
are typically installed in the electrical circuit of the motor to
monitor the electrical current, voltage, and temperature of the
motor. If the device detects an abnormal condition, it will
automatically shut off the power to the motor, preventing
damage and prolonging the life of the motor.
There are several types of motor protection devices available,
including thermal overload relays, electronic motor protection
devices, and motor protection circuit breakers. Thermal
overload relays use bimetal strips to detect the temperature of
the motor and shut off power if it becomes too hot. Electronic
motor protection devices use microprocessors to monitor the
electrical current and voltage of the motor and shut off power
if any abnormal conditions are detected. Motor protection
circuit breakers are similar to standard circuit breakers, but
they have been designed specifically for use with electric
motors.

18.Motor Protection Relay [MPR]:

Motor protection relays are used in panel boards to protect
motors from damage due to over-current, under-voltage, and
phase failure. These relays monitor the current, voltage, and
phase of the motor and will trip (disconnect power to the
motor) if any of these parameters exceed safe levels. This helps
to prevent damage to the motor, prolong its lifespan, and
ensure safe and reliable operation. They also provide
protection against phase failure, phase imbalance, and ground
faults.

19.Automanual switch:

An "automanual switch" in a panel refers to a switch or button

that allows the user to switch between automatic and manual
control of a system or device. In automatic mode, the system or
device is controlled by a pre-programmed set of instructions or
by a computer or other electronic controller. In manual mode,
the system or device is controlled directly by the user. This
switch is typically used in systems such as HVAC, lighting,
elevators, and industrial control systems. These are fixed to the
panel boards as per the customers requirements. All panels will
not have this system.

20.Other required components:

Other components also used in panel board manufacturing like

ducts, channels, lugs, screws, bolts, vouchers, fans, earthing,
sleeves, spirals, nuts, labels , timers, capacitor banks, NO, NC
blocks, stickers, trip block, fans, ducts, etc. These all
components are also important for the panel board
manufacturing. After the manufacturing of the panel board
testing of panel is very important in order to check the faults.

Each and every component of the panel is important even the

small components like lugs, nuts etc. Manufacturing of the total
panel board is made as per the customers load requirements.
The components and wiring will change from panel to panel.
 7 TANK PROCESS

➢ Tank-1: DEGREASING:- Room temperature process

duration-30-40 minutes. For cleaning the sheet metal surface of
grease, oils, soils, lubricants, oxide films, heat
treatment/welding scales etc. by alkaline degreaser.

 Tank-2: WATER RINSE- 1:- Rinsing Process is Carried out

➢Tank-3: DERUSTING:- Room Temperature Process, Duration-

20 Minutes, For-Cleaning the Sheet metal surface of rust by
Mixed hydro-chloric acid.

➢ Tank-4: WATER RINSE-II:- Rinsing Process is Carried out

 Tank-5: PHOSPHATING:- Room temperature process

duration-5-20minutes. For-Smooth & Uniform coating of
sheet metal surface with Zn Phosphate by zinc phosphate
solution.
➢ Tank-6: WATER RINSE-III:- Rinsing Process is Carried out.

➢Tank-7: PASSIVATION:- Room Temperature Process,

Duration-15-20 Minutes, For-Sealing Pores of Sheet Metal
Surface for obtaining Maximum Corrosion Resistance over by
de-cxylite solution.

Steps for manufacturing of panel board:-

1.Gathering materials: The first step in manufacturing a
panel board is to gather all of the necessary materials,
including the panel board itself, as well as any components
that will be mounted on it, such as circuit breakers, fuses, and
other electrical components.

2.Preparing the panel board: Next, the panel board is

preparedby cleaning it and making sure that it is free from any
debris or contaminants that could affect the performance of
the electrical components.

3.Mounting the components: The electrical components are

then mounted on the panel board using screws, bolts, or other
fasteners. This process typically involves drilling holes in the
panel board to accommodate the components.

4.Wiring the components: The electrical components are

wired together according to a pre-determined electrical
diagram. This typically involves running wires between the
components, connecting them to the power source, and
making sure that they are properly grounded.

5.Testing the panel board: Once all of the components are

mounted and wired, the panel board is tested to ensure that it
is functioning properly. This typically involves running a series
of tests to check for continuity, short circuits, and other
potential issues.

6. Finishing touches: The final step is to complete the

finishingtouches to the panel board, such as attaching a cover
or label,before shipping it out to the customer.
 TESTING OF PANEL BOARDS
There are several steps involved in testing a panel board,
including:

1. Verify that the main breaker is in the off position.

2. Check for proper grounding and bonding of the panel

board.

3.Test all ground fault circuit interrupters (GFCIs) and arc fault
circuit interrupters (AFCIs) to ensure they are functioning
properly.

4.Test all over-current protection devices, such as circuit

breakers and fuses, to ensure they are functioning properly.

5.Test all branch circuits to ensure they are properly wired and
functioning correctly.

6.Verify that all labels and markings on the panel board are
accurate and up-to-date.

7.Check for any signs of damage or wear on the panel board,

including corrosion or overheating.

8.Perform a continuity test on all conductors to ensure they

are properly connected and not damaged.

9.Test the main service conductors and service equipment,

including the meter and main service disconnect, to ensure
they are functioning properly.
10. Turn the main breaker back on and check for any issues
with power to the panel board and connected circuits.

Safety measures during manufacturing of panel boards:

1.Always wear personal protective equipment such as safety

glasses, gloves, and a face mask.

2. Use appropriate tools and equipment to avoid injury.

3. Follow proper lifting techniques to prevent strain or injury.

4.Follow the manufacturer's instructions when installing and

working with electrical components.

5.Make sure that all electrical connections are properly made

and tightened.

6. Use proper grounding techniques to ensure electrical

safety.

7.Use non-conductive materials, such as fiberglass, when

working with live electrical components.

8. Use a qualified electrician to install and wire panel

boards.

9.Regularly inspect and maintain panel boards to ensure they

are in safe working condition. 8:18
 Introduction to Motor Starters
Motor starters are one of the major inventions for motor
control applications. As the name suggests, a starter is an
electrical device which controls the electrical power for starting
a motor. These electrical devices are also used for the purpose
of stopping, reversing and protecting electric motors. The
following are the two major components of a starter:

1.Contactor: The main function of the contactor is to

control the electric current to the motor. A contactor can
make or break power to the circuit.

2.Overload Relay: Overheating and drawing too much

current can cause the motor to burn out and become
practically useless. Overload relays prevent this from
happening and protect the motor from any potential danger.

A starter is an assembly of these two components, which allows

it to turn on or off an electric motor or motor controlled
electrical equipment. The starter also provides the necessary
overload protection to the circuit.

Types of Motor Starters

There are several types of motor starters. However, the two

most basic types of these electrical devices are:

Manual Starters

Manual starters are devices that are operated manually. These

starters are extremely easy and straightforward to operate and
do not require expert intervention. The starter includes a
button (or rotary knob) which enables a user to turn the
connected equipment on or off. The buttons feature
mechanical linkages, which make the contacts open or close,
starting or stopping the motor. The following features of a
manual starter make it a preferred choice over other types:

These starters deliver a safe, as well as economical

Operation.

The compact size of these devices make them suitable for

a wide range of applications.

They provide overload protection to the motor, protecting it

from any potential damage.

These devices come with a vast choice of

enclosures. The initial cost of the manual starter is

low.
Magnetic Motor Starters

This is the other main type of motor starter. It is operated

electromagnetically. It means that the motor load connected to
the motor starter is typically started and stopped using a lower
and safer voltage than the motor voltage. Just like other motor
starters, the magnetic starter also has an electrical contactor
and overload relay to protect the device from too much current
or overheating.
There are two circuits in a motor starter, which are as follows:
1.Power Circuit: The power circuit connects the line to the
motor. It provides transmission of electricity through the
starter contacts, overload relay, and then to the motor. The
motor current is carried by the power (main) contacts of the
contactor.
2. Control Circuit: This is the other motor starter circuit, which
operates the contactor to turn it on or off. The contactor main
contacts are responsible for allowing or interrupting the flow of
current to the motor. To do this, the contacts in the control
circuit are either opened or closed. The control circuit energizes
the contactor coil, which creates an electromagnetic field. The
power contacts are an electromagnetic field. The power
contacts are pulled by this electromagnetic field to a closed
position. This completes the circuit between the motor and the
line. This way, remote operations are made possible by the
control circuit. The control circuit can be wired in the following
two ways:
1. Method 1: One of the most widely used methods employed
for wiring the control circuit is referred to as the "Two-wire
method". A maintained contact type of pilot device like
presence sensor, thermostat, or float switch is used in the two-
wire method of wiring the control circuit.

2.Method 2: Unlike the two-wire method, the "Three-

wire method" of wiring the control circuit uses a
holding circuit contact and the momentary contact pilot
devices.

The control circuit can derive the power from either of the
following three ways:

Common Control: This type of control is when the

power source of the control circuit is the same as the
motor.

Separate Control: This is the most popular type of control. As

the name suggests, the control circuit derives power from a
separate source in this arrangement. Generally, the power
derived is lower in voltage as compared to the motor's power.
Transformer Control: As the name suggests, the control circuit
derives power from a control circuit transformer. Generally, the
power derived is lower in voltage as compared to the motor's
power source.

Types of Magnetic Motor Starters:

Depending on how they are connected in a circuit, there are

many types of magnetic motor starters, such as:

1. Direct-On-Line Starter:

The direct-on-line starter is the simplest form of motor starter,

other than a manual starter. The controller of this starter is
typically a simple push button (but could be a selector switch,
limit switch, float switch, etc.). Pressing the start button closes
the contactor (by energizing the contactor coil) connected to
the main supply and motor. This provides the supply current to
the motor. To turn the motor off, a stop button is provided. To
protect it from over current, the control circuit is wired through
a normally closed auxiliary contact of the overload relay. When
the overload relay trips, the normally closed auxiliary contact
opens, and de-energizes the contactor coil, and the contactor
main contacts open.

The Advantages of Using Direct-On-Line Motor Starters:

• They have a compact design.

• They are cost-effective.

• They have a simple construction.

2. Rotor Resistance Starter:

In the rotor resistance starter, the three resistances are

connected such that they are in series with the rotor windings.
This helps reduce the rotor current considerably, as well as
increases the motor torque.

The Advantages of Using Rotor Resistance Motor Starters:

 They are cost-effective.

 They have a simple speed control method.
 They provide low starting current, large starting torque,
and large pull-out torque.

3. Stator Resistance Starter:

The stator resistance starter consists of three resistors, which

are connected in series with each phase of the stator windings.
At each resistor, a voltage drop is caused, so it becomes
necessary to apply low voltage to each phase. These resistances
are set at the start or maximum position during the motor start
stage. The starting current is kept at a minimum In this type of
starter. Also, the starting torque to the motor needs to be
maintained.

The Advantages of Using Stator Resistance Motor Starters:

They are suitable for use in speed control applications.

They have extremely flexible starting characteristics.
They provide smooth acceleration.

4. Auto Transformer Starter:

With an auto transformer starter, the transformer supplies a
certain percentage of the primary voltage to the secondary of
the transformer. The auto transformer is connected in a star
configuration. The three tapped secondary coils of the
transformer are connected to the three motor phases in this
type of starter. This helps in reducing the voltage that is being
applied to the motor terminals.

The Advantages of Using Auto Transformer Motor Starters:

•They can be used for manual speed control, but with limited
options.
• They have extremely flexible starting characteristics.
• They have a high output torque.

5. Star Delta Starter:

Compared to the other types of starters, the star delta starter is

used on a large scale. As the name suggests, the three windings
are connected in a star connection in the star delta starters. A
certain time is set by the timer or any other controller circuit.
After this time is passed, the windings are then connected in
the delta connection. The phase voltage in the star connection
Is reduced to 58%, and the total current drawn is 58% of
normal current. This results in a reduced torque.

The Advantages of Using Star Delta Motor Starters:

They are ideal for long acceleration times.

They have a lower input surge current when compared to other
starters.
They have a simpler construction as compared to other
starters.
Features of Motor Starters
Today, motor starters are used on a large scale due to their list
of beneficial features. The following are some features of these
highly useful electrical devices:

1. They facilitate the starting and stopping of the motor.

2.The starters are rated by power (horsepower, kilowatt) and
current (amperes).
3. They provide the necessary overload protection for the
motor.
4.The electrical device facilitates remote on/off control
feature.
5.These devices allow you to make and break current rapidly
(plugging and jogging)

Fundamental Functions of Motor Starters

The following are the most fundamental functions that a starter

has to perform:

6.Control: The control function is mainly carried out by the

contactor component of a starter. It is controlling the opening
and closing of the power electrical circuit. The switching is done
by the main contacts (poles) of the contactor. An
electromagnetic coil is energized, which open or close the
contacts. This electromagnetic coil has a nominal control
voltage, and can either be an AC or DC voltage.
7.Short-Circuit Protection: In industrial applications, normal
load current can be up to thousands of amperes. In the case of
a short- circuit fault, the fault current can go over 100,000
amperes. This can cause severe damage to the equipment. The
short-circuit protection disconnects the supply and prevents
the potential damage in a safe manner. Short circuit protection
is provided by fuses or circuit breakers in a Combination Motor
Controller.

3.Overload Protection: When a motor draws more current

than it is designed to, an overload condition is caused. The
main objective of an overload relay is to detect the excess
currents. When an overload is detected, the auxiliary contact of
the overload relay opens the circuit and prevents the motor
from burning out or overheating. Electronic or
electromechanical overload relays are used in combination with
a contactor to provide the required overload protection.

4.Disconnecting and Breaking: In order to prevent an

unintended restart, it is required to disconnect the motor from
the main power circuit. In order to safely perform maintenance
on a motor or starter, a motor must be able to switch off and
be isolated from the power. The disconnect switch of the circuit
provides this function. Disconnecting and breaking is provided
by a disconnect switch or circuit breaker in a Combination
Motor Controller (or can be installed remotely from the starter)

Types of measuring instruments used in panel boards:

1. Ammeters:

An ammeter is a device used to measure the electrical current

in a circuit. In a panel board, an ammeter is typically used to
monitor the amount of current flowing through the main
electrical service, as well as through individual circuits. This
information can be used to identify potential problems, such as
overloaded circuits, and to ensure that the panel board is
functioning properly. Ammeters are typically connected in
series with the circuit being measured, and are calibrated to
indicate the current in amperes (A).

2. Voltmeters:

A voltmeter is a device used to measure the voltage, or

electrical potential difference, between two points in an
electrical circuit. In a panel, a voltmeter is typically used to
measure the voltage of the electrical system that the panel is
connected to. This can be used to monitor the health of the
electrical system and to troubleshoot any issues that may arise.
The voltmeter can be either digital or Analog and it can be
connected in series or in parallel with the circuit.

3.Clamp meter:
A clamp meter is a type of electrical tester that is used to
measure the current flowing through a conductor without
making direct contact with it. The device typically consists of a
pair of jaws that can be clamped around a conductor to
measure the current flowing through it. Clamp meters are
widely used in electrical panels and other industrial settings as
they provide a convenient and non-invasive way to measure
current. Some clamp meters also have other measurement
capabilities such as voltage, resistance, continuity, and
frequency, which makes it a versatile tool.

4.Megger:

TOOLS USED

The following are the basic electrical tools which are used in
case of AC machines assembling , dismantling and construction
purpose and for better efficiency.
PLIERS:

Pliers are another tool that has been with us for a long time.
Their versatility means they can be used to accomplish a
multitude of tasks requiring ‘torque’, working in a much more
robust manner than would be possible with the use of bare
hands alone.
WIRE STRIPPERS:

Wire strippers are plier-like tools used to remove the insulating

outer sheath from cables in order to attach terminals or
connectors to the central core via crimping or soldering. Some
strippers also allow electricians to cut right through the copper
or conduit in a wire or cable.

SCREW DRIVER:
Screwdrivers are one of the most traditional of tools but are
still indispensable for most electricians who frequently require
access to electrical containers sealed with screws. There are
multiple sizes and shapes available for compatibility with the
abundance of screw design.
INSULATION
TAPE:

Electrical tape is used to insulate wires or other items that

conduct electricity. Also known as insulation tape or electrical
insulation tape, it is self-adhesive and pressure-sensitive, built
to resist abrasion, heat and liquids in order to protect the
sensitive conducting core within electrical wiring.

FLAT SPANNER:

Spanners will almost certainly be an essential inclusion in your tool kit if

you regularly need to loosen or attach nuts, bolts or similar fixings. With
so many different sizes of bolt and nut, a similar variety of spanner
designs are available to ensure a close fit between the head which
applies torque and the fixture in question.
 EARTHING OF CONTROL PANELS
It is carried out to facilitate electromagnetic compatibility
between systems and to avoid the occurrence of electrical
shock to person working in the vicinity of that electrical system
during ground faults. This article presents the need of
earthing in control panels.

Need for Earthing:

Equipment in automotive industries where control panels are

situated are of high frequencies which when interfere with
other electrical components cause malfunction. Generally,
devices like controllers, communication devices and digital
measuring devices when exposed to electromagnetic
interference fail to provide effective output & pose threats of
electric shocks during fault conditions. During fault condition,
high current flows through the system and there is a possibility
that current does not flow through its intended path instead
flows through metallic body of machines or panel. When a
person comes in contact with such an electric circuit or source
of electric energy, he/she is prone to an electric shock. An
electric shock may result in either no injury at all or one which
can prove to be fatal, causing death. Possibilities of shock
increases if the electrical system is not well protected or
insulated from its high voltage environment.

In order to safeguard operating personnel and system from:

•Electromagnetic interference due to high frequency
components and
•Electric shocks. It is necessary to provide a path to divert the
fault current, this calls for the arrangement of earthing systems.

Earthing of Electrical Panels When earthing an electrical panel,

the following applies: Earthing a main panel: The ground bar is
bonded internally which must be of proper dimensions as per IS
or NEC norms and to be earthed at two ends. Earthing a sub-
panel: Sub-panels are grounded through the cable that provides
the secondary-feed circuit power. A secondary-feed cable will
have two insulated power conductors, one insulated neutral
conductor and one ground wire. The ground wire is bonded at
the main panel to the ground system.
 INSTALLATION OF AC PANEL
BOARD
Before installing a panel board, you should consider the
electrical needs, including the number and types of devices that
will be connected. You should also plan the location of the
panel board, making sure it complies with local regulations.
Some good locations include basements and garages, which are
accessible and out of sight, as well as hallways, entryways,
utility rooms, and storage rooms, but you should avoid clothing
closets. The panel board should be 1.5 meters from ground
level, made of seasoned teak wood, and have dovetailed joints.
The main switch board should be flush with the wall surface
and concealed in the wall thickness.

Installing a panel board involves several steps to ensure it is

safely and properly integrated into the electrical system of a
building or facility. Here's a general overview of the installation
process: Acquire Necessary Equipment and Materials:
➢Purchase the panel board, circuit breakers or fuses, wiring,
conduit, mounting hardware, and any other materials required
for installation.

➢Ensure that all equipment and materials meet relevant

electrical codes and standards. Preparation:

➢Turn off the main electrical supply to the building to the

building to ensure safety during installation.

➢Prepare the installation area by clearing obstructions and

ensuring adequate space for mounting the panel board and
working around it.

Wiring and Connections:

➢Install the necessary wiring and conduit to connect the panel

board to the main electrical service entrance and individual
circuits.

➢Follow wiring diagrams and manufacturer instructions to

route wires neatly and securely within the panel board.

➢Make tight and secure connections between wires, circuit

breakers or fuses, and other components to minimize the risk of
overheating and electrical faults

Grounding and Bonding:

➢Connect grounding conductors to the panel board enclosure

and ensure proper bonding between metal parts to prevent
electric shock and fires.
➢Follow electrical codes and standards for grounding and
bonding requirements specific to the installation location and
type of equipment used.

Labeling and Identification:

➢Label each circuit in the panel board to indicate its function,

voltage rating, maximum current capacity, and any other
relevant information.

➢Ensure that labeling is clear, legible, and permanent to

facilitate maintenance, troubleshooting, and future
modifications.

Testing and Inspection:

Conduct thorough testing of the panel board and connected

circuits to ensure proper operation and compliance with
electrical codes.

➢Perform a visual inspection to verify that all connections are

secure, wiring is properly routed, and components are installed
according to manufacturer instructions and relevant standards.

➢If required by local regulations, schedule an inspection by a

qualified electrical inspector to approve the installation before
energizing the electrical system.

To select an electrical panel board, you can follow these

general steps:

1. Determine the electrical load requirements: Calculate the

total electrical load for the building or facility, including current
and future needs.
 2.Understand electrical codes and regulations: Familiarize
yourself with local electrical codes and regulations to ensure
compliance.

3.Assess available space: Consider the available space for the

electrical panel board installation to ensure it fits properly.

4.Choose the appropriate panel type: Select the type of panel

board based on factors such as the type of building, voltage
requirements, and specific application needs (e.g., residential,
commercial, industrial)

5.Evaluate features and specifications: Compare different panel

board options based on features such as capacity, number of
circuits, circuit breaker type, safety features, and reliability.

6.Consult with professionals: If necessary, consult with

electrical engineers or professionals to help you select the right
panel board for your requirements.

7.Installation and maintenance considerations: Factor in

installation requirements and ongoing maintenance needs
when making your selection.
 BUSBAR
A bus bar (also spelled busbar , buss bar of busbar), is a strip or
bar of copper. brass or aluminium that conducts electricity with in a
switchboard, distribution board, substation, battery bank or other
electrical apparatus. Its main purpose is to conduct electricity, not
to function as a structural member.

Busbars are typically either flat strips or hollow tubes as these

shapes allow heat to dissipate more efficiently dueto their high
surface area to cross-sectional area ratio. A hollow section has
higher stiffness to a solid rod of equivalent currentcarrying capacity,
which allows a greater space between busbar supports in
outdoor switchyards.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF AC
PANEL BOARDS
Advantages:
1. The generation of A.C. is cheaper than that of D.C.

Several power plants prefer AC type of electric current. Untilthe

present AC is still the one being by providers by most power
distribution systems. According to some companies.
Alternating current has less energy deficiencies compared to
direct current when transmitting electricity at far distances and
is inexpensive to generate.
2. Gives Power Generation

The AC generator was invented due to the creation of

Alternating Current and hydroelectric power generation was
also developed. AC generators that are still used up to this day.
Compared to the mechanical generation from DC, it is simpler.
3. Lower in Cost and Available

Alternating current comes in great quantity and is less

expensive. AC is better and is lesser in cost than compared to
DC current, which also supplies lower current.
4. Versatility:

AC panel boards can accommodate various types of loads,

including lighting, appliances, and machinery,
making them suitable for a wide range of applications.
5.Compatibility:

They are compatible with the standard electrical grid

infrastructure, allowing for easy integration into existing
systems.
6. Ease of installation:

AC panel boards are relatively simple to install and

configure, especially when compared to more complex
systems like DC (direct current) panels.
7. Availability:

AC components and equipment are readily available, making

repairs and replacements convenient and cost-effective.
8. Efficiency:

AC power transmission over long distances is more efficient

compared to DC, making AC panel boards I deal for larger
installations.

Disadvantages:
1. Power loss:

Ac systems experience energy loss due to factors like resistance

and reactance, especially over long transmissiondistances.
 2. Safety concerns:

AC systems can pose a higher risk of electric shock comparedto

DC systems, especially at higher voltages.

3. Complex maintenance:

AC panel boards may require more frequent maintenance and

troubleshooting due to the complexity of AC circuits and
components.

4. Harmonic distortion:

AC systems can produce harmonic distortion, which can affect

the performance of sensitive electronic equipment and cause
inefficiencies in power distribution.

5. Limited distance:

AC power transmission over very long distances can result in

significant losses, requiring additional infrastructure such as
substations and transformers to maintain voltage levels.

6.Alternating voltages cannot be used for certain applications

for charging of batteries, electroplating, electrictraction etc:
Due to AC high voltage generation, it is more dangerous to
work with AC than DC when using cellphone devices and
battery with laptops

7. Causes Heat and Spark:

AC current if neglected, is prone to heating and sparking that

can potentially fires and electric shock. This is because AC
generators need to produce high currents. In electronic
devices, the transmission in lines can be dangerous, especially
when used irresponsibly like mobile phone users who use
inferior-made charges while using the phone. Whenthe charger
heats up, it sometimes results to explosion and even death.

8. At high voltages, AC are more dangerous:

AC can deal a lot of damaged if not utilized properly. If by

accident something went wrong, AC has a frequency of doinga
plenty of complication on our body. 25 volts is enough to put
life at end. One of the reasons that AC might be looked more
dangerous because it has more possibilities of getting into the
human body. Since the voltage alters it causes the current
enter and exit the body.
APPLICATIONS OF AC PANEL BOARDS
1.POWER DISTRIBUTION: AC panel boards distribute
electricalpower from a main source to various circuits within
a buildingor facility. They help manage the flow of electricity
to differentareas or equipment.

2.CIRCUIT PROTECTION: Panel boards typically include circuit

breakers or fuses to protect circuits and equipment from
overloads or short circuits. These protective devices help
prevent damage to electrical systems and reduce the risk of fire
hazards.

3.LOAD MANAGEMENT:AC panel boards allow for the allocation

and management of electrical loads across different circuits.
This ensures that power is distributed efficiently throughout the
building.

4.METERING AND MONITORING: Some panel boards

feature meters or monitoring devices to measure electrical
consumption, monitor power quality or detect faults.

5. INTEGRATION WITH CONTROL SYSTEMS: In industrial

applications, AC panel boards may integrate with control
systems to automate processes, monitor equipment status, and
control electrical devices remotely.

6.EMERGENCY POWER SYSTEMS: In critical facilities such

ashospitals or data centers, panel boards may be part of
emergency power systems, ensuring continuity of power supply
during outages or emergencies.

7.RENEWABLE ENERGY INTEGRATION: With the increasing

adoption of renewable energy sources like wind or solar power,
AC panel boards play a role in integrating these sources into
existing electrical systems, managing their distribution and
synchronization with the grid.

8.CUSTOMIZATION AND EXPANSION: Panel boards can be

customized to meet specific requirements of different
applications, and they often allow for easy expansion as the
electrical needs of a building or facility evolve over time.
POWER SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS OF AC PANEL
Voltage : This indicates the maximum voltage that
Rating the
panel board can safely handle. Common voltage ratings
include
120V, 240V, 480V, and higher, depending on the application
and local electrical standards.
Current Rating: This refers to the maximum current
(amperage) that the panel board can handle safely. The
current rating is determined by factors such as the size of
the conductors, the capacity of the circuit breakers, and the
load requirements of the connected electrical devices.
Number of Circuits: The rating of the panel board may also
specify the number of circuits it can accommodate. This
depends on the number of circuit breaker slots or positions
available in the panel board enclosure.
Phase Configuration: Panel boards can be single-phase or
three-phase, depending on the electrical system
configuration. Single-phase panel boards are common in
residential settings, while three-phase panel boards are
more typical in commercial and industrial applications.
Enclosure Type and Environmental : The enclosure
Rating of
the panel board is designed to protect the internal
components
from environmental factors such as dust, moisture, and
physical damage.
The enclosure type and environmental rating should match
the requirements of the installation location.
Over current Protection: The panel board should be
equipped with appropriate over current protection devices,
such as circuit breakers or fuses, to protect against short
circuits and overloads.
Load Calculation: Before selecting a panel board, it's
essential to perform a load calculation to determine the
total electrical load of the building or facility. This includes
considering the power requirements of all connected
devices, lighting, appliances, HVAC systems, etc.
By considering these factors and conducting a thorough
assessment of the electrical requirements, one can
determine the appropriate rating and specifications for an
AC panel
AC distribution systems are of the following types:
 Single-phase, 2-wire system.
 Single-phase, 3-wire system.
 Two-phase, 3-wire system.
 Two-phase 4-wire system.
 Three-phase 3-wire system.
 TYPES OF CABLES
Shielded cables are designed to reduce electromagnetic
interference (EMI) and radio frequency interference (RFI) that
can disrupt signals transmitted along the cable. They are
commonly used in environments where electrical noise is
prevalent or where signal integrity is crucial. Here are some
types of shielded cables commonly used:

1. Twisted Pair Shielded Cable : Twisted pair

(STP) cables
consist of pairs of insulated copper wires twisted together.
In
 shielded twisted pair (STP) cables, each pair of wires is
surrounded by a metal foil or braided shield. STP cables
provide excellent protection against external
electromagnetic interference and are commonly used in
networking applications, such as Ethernet.

2. Coaxial Cable: Coaxial cables consist of a central conductor,

surrounded by an insulating layer, a metallic shield, and an
outer insulating layer. The metallic shieldprovides protection
against electromagnetic interference. Coaxial cables are
commonly used for cable television (CATV), broadband
internet connections, and other high-frequency applications.

3. Braided Shielded Cable: Braided shielded cables consist of

one or more layers of braided metal wires surrounding the
insulated conductors. Braided shields offer flexibility and
durability while providing excellent protection against both
low and high-frequency interference. They are commonly
used in industrial environments, instrumentation, and
telecommunications.

4. Overall Shielded Cable (OS): Overall shielded cables, also

known as screened cables, feature a single shield that covers
all the conductors within the cable. This type of shielding
provides comprehensive protection against external
interference and is commonly used in applications where
signal integrity is critical, such as high-speed data
transmission and medical equipment.
5. Multi-Conductor Shielded : Multi-conductor
Cable shielded
cables contain multiple insulated conductors,
each
individually shielded and then encased withinan
overall
shield. These cables are used in applications requiring
the transmission of multiple signals while
minimizing interference, such as audio systems, control
systems, and instrumentation.
These are some of the common types of shielded cables used in
various applications. The choice of shielded cable on
factors such as the level of interference presendepends t in the
environment, the frequency of the signals being transmitted,
and the specific requirements of the application.

Electric shocks

An electric shock occurs when a person comes into contact with

an electrical energy source. Electrical energy flows through a
portion of the body, causing a shock. Exposure to electrical
energy may result in no injury at all or may result in devastating
damage or death.

Burns are the most common injury from electric shock.

Many things determine what injuries may occur, if any. These
include the type of current (AC or DC), the amount of current
(determined by the voltage of the source and the resistance of
the tissues involved), and the pathway the electricity takes
through the body. Low-voltage electricity (less than 500 volts)
may result in only superficial burns or possibly more severe
injuries, depending on the matters above. Exposure to high-
voltage electricity (greater than 500 volts) can cause serious
damage

Children are not often seriously injured by electricity. They are

prone to shock by the low voltage (110-220 volts) found in
typical household current. In children ages 12 years and
younger, household appliance electrical cords and extension
cords caused more than 63% of injuries in one study. Wall
outlets were responsible for 15% of injuries.

Preventions taken for electric shock

For children younger than 12, most electrical injuries are
caused by power cords. Inspect your power cords and
extension cords. Replace any cords that have a broken or
cracked external covering and any cord that has exposed wire.

Do not allow children to play with any electrical cord.

Limit the use of extension cords,

Some safety precautions to follow to avoid electric shocks and

fires.:

Make sure the appliance or the socket is properly earthed.

Don't overload a socket by plugging in more appliances into the

same socket.

Make sure the plastic cover on the wires is intact.

Don't touch current carrying equipment with wet hands.

Use proper safety equipment like gloves and right tools to do

electric repairs.
SHOCK TREATMENTS OF CONTROL PANEL 6
THERMAL HAZARDS THAT CAN BE
AVOIDED INCONTROL PANELS
Enclosed industrial control panels are generally comprised of
an electrical enclosure, internal components such VFDs, PLCs
and other electrical equipment, which are mounted in various
ways throughout the enclosure. Integral to the design and
manufacturing processes, every component of these units and
assemblies is evaluated for quality, durability, current ratings
and the abilities to function safely within specified voltages.
Once assembled and in place, control panels are inspected for
electrical, fire and shock hazards but usually not for their ability
to operate reliably under high heat loads while surrounded by
high ambient temperatures.
The control panel designer is the sole person responsible for
taking into account environmental factors, layout of electrical
components and cooling management solutions in order to
avoid thermal hazards and ensure safe and reliable operation.
The best way to ensure safe and reliable control panel
operation is to be to avoid these potential problems:

1. Neglecting nearby heat-producing equipment The ambient

temperature range is an important factor to know before
determining the correct cooling solution. The maximum
ambient temperature may be higher than expected due to the
control panel’s proximity to nearby heat producing
equipment and/or exposure to solar radiation.
2.Improper arrangement of electrical components Take
advantage of natural convection by mounting heat sensitive
electrical components towards the bottom of the control panel
where the cooler air will be. Robust electrical components
should be placed toward the top of the control panel since that
is where the heated air will rise to. This arrangement will help
protect temperature sensitive equipment.

3.Using an enclosure that is too small Selecting a larger

enclosure will provide more spacing between components
allowing for better heat dissipation which will improve the
overall control panel cooling. Choosing an enclosure with more
depth can also provide better unrestricted flow of cool air,
keeping hot spots from forming.

4.Inaccurate Heat Load Calculation Conducting an accurate

heat load calculation by using an online enclosure thermal
management Calculator is a great place to begin before
determining the required cooling capacity to ensure proper
control panel protection. The proposed location and
environmental conditions also determine the required NEMA
rating of the enclosure.

5.Failing to monitor equipment Establish cooling Performance

performance monitoring for enclosure air conditioners.
Having this function in place will alert personnel before a
thermal hazard occurs.
6. Condensation: An Often Overlooked Thermal Hazard
Thermal hazards for control panels are not always about
overheating problems. Besides excessive ambient
temperatures, equally catastrophic results can occur when
ambient temperatures quickly fall in high humidity areas
resulting in condensation.

Besides rust, corrosion and short circuiting are the two major
problems associated with condensation inside control
panels. Corrosion causes increased electrical resistance,
inconsistent equipment performance leading to component
failure and unplanned downtime. Condensation occurs when
internal warm moist air comes into contact with the cool
walls of the enclosure, which is at or below the dew point.
Water droplets will begin to form and may come into contact
with active electrical components.
Exposed un-insulated enclosures located in outdoor
environment are especially prone to condensation.
Condensation can be prevented the following
ways:

1.A properly sealed cabinet equipped with gaskets and cable

grommets helps keep warm moist ambient air from entering
the control panel.

2.Avoiding frequent opening and closing of panel doors will

help prevent condensation by limiting the amount of moist air
entering the cabinet.

3.Use a closed loop cooling system. Condensation

is preventable by keeping the relative humidity 60% or less
and
controlling sudden temperature changes with the use of an air-
to-air heat exchanger or an enclosure air conditioner. 4. Use an
enclosure heater. When the enclosure temperature falls below
the ambient temperature and the air conditioner is not running,
an enclosure heater can be used to maintain an air at a
temperature that will allow it to absorb any moisture and keep
it from condensing. Air conditioners are available with built-in
heaters and separate heaters are also available for installation
inside the enclosure. Experienced specialists will work closely
with you to solve cooling challenges that your industrial
application poses for your electrical control panels.

EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC SHOCK AND ELECTOCUTION

1.Temporary paralysis of a nerve system which lead to failure
of breathing.
2.Chest muscles may contract which also effect breathing, and
if this continuous death will result.
3.Due to stopping of breathing action caused by blockade in
the nervous system respiration.
4.Sometimes breathing has stopped, but heart may continue
to beat. This condition cause the face to appear blue colour.
5.Depending on the strength of the electric current, body may
burns, either superficial or deep
PROCEDURE OF FIRST AID IN CASE OF ELECTRIC SHOCK
6. Removal of victim from supply.
7. Checking the victim.
The Necessity of Danger Boards on AC Panels:

Ensuring Safety in Electrical Installations Introduction: Electrical

systems are ubiquitous in our modern world, powering homes,
businesses, and industries. However, the convenience of
electricity comes with inherent risks, especially in the context of
alternating current (AC) panels. AC panels serve as the central
hub for distributing electricity within a building or facility,
making them crucial components of electrical installations. To
mitigate the risks associated with electrical hazards, the
implementation of safety measures is imperative. One such
measure is the installation of danger boards on AC panels. This
essay explores the necessity of danger boards, their functions,
regulations, and the importance of adhering to safety standards
in electrical systems.
Understanding AC Panels:

AC panels, also known as distribution boards or breaker panels,

are electrical enclosures that house circuit breakers, fuses, and
other protective devices. They receive power from the main
electrical supply and distribute it to various circuits
throughout a building. These panels play a vital role in
controlling the flow of electricity, protecting circuits from
overloads, short circuits, and other faults.

Importance of Safety in Electrical Installations:

Safety is paramount in electrical installations due to the
inherent dangers associated with electricity. Electrical hazards
such as electric shock, arc flash, and fire pose significant risks to
both life and property. Inadequate safety measures can lead to
accidents, injuries, and even fatalities. Therefore, it is essential
to implement safety practices and standards to minimize these
risks and ensure the protection of personnel and equipment.

Functions of Danger Boards:

1.Hazard Identification: Danger boards provide visual cues to
identify electrical hazards, such as high voltage, arc flash, and
shock risks, associated with AC panels.

2.Risk Communication: By displaying warning messages and

symbols, danger boards communicate the potential dangers to
personnel working in proximity to AC panels, prompting them
to take appropriate safety measures.

3. Compliance with Regulations: Regulatory standards, such as

those set forth by organizations like the Occupational Safety
and Health Administration (OSHA) and the National Electrical
Code (NEC), often mandate the use of danger boards to ensure
compliance with safety requirements.

Enhancing Safety and Efficiency :

Upgrading panel boards enhances safety and efficiency of

electrical systems.

Panel board upgrade involves replacing an existing panel with

a newer, more advanced model.

Essential for ensuring compliance with modern electrical codes

and standards
Benefits of Panel Board Upgrade :

Increased capacity to support additional circuits and electrical

loads.

Enhanced protection against overloads and short circuits.

Modern features such as remote monitoring and diagnostic

capabilities.

Safety Precautions During Upgrade :

Proper shut down of electrical supply before starting the

upgrade.

Use of personal protective equipment (PPE) by the installation

team.

Adherence to safety protocols and guidelines to prevent

accidents.

Common Signs for Upgrade:

Frequent circuit breaker trips or fuse blowouts.

Flickering lights or appliances not working at full

capacity.

Burn marks, buzzing sounds, or overheating in the panel

board.
Importance of Professional Installation:

Certified electricians have the expertise to handle panel board

upgrades.

Ensures compliance with safety standards and regulations.

Guarantees proper installation for optimal performance and

longevity.
 DIFFERENT TYPES OF WIRING SYSTEM :
The various systems of wiring used in our country are:
1. Clear wiring
2. Wooden casing and capping wiring
3. CTS or TRS wiring
4. Lead sheathed or metal sheathed wiring
5. Conduit wiring
a. Surface or open type b. Recessed or concealed type

❖ CLEAT WIRING:
The wires/cables used in this system of wiring are either VLR or
PVC. Type. The porcelain cleats are used to hold the cables about
6mm above the walls or ceiling. The cleats are made in two
halves, the base and cover (cap). The base has grooves to
accommodate the wires and is fixed on the wall and the cover is
placed over it and whole of it is then screwed on wooden gutties
. The wooden gutties are previously fixed and cemented into the
wall and ceiling. The cleats are of three types having one, two or
three grooves to accommodate one, two or three wires
respectively. The maximum distance between the cleats should
not be more than 60 cm, otherwise the wires may in contact
with wall or with each other. Hence, to ensure longer life, the
safe distance is 30 cm. For a voltage upto 250 V, the distance
between the cleat grooves should not be less than 2.5 cm for
branch circuit and should not be less than 4 cm for sub-circuits.

❖ WOODEN CASING AND CAPPING WIRING:

This system was introduced 60 years ago, when it was first
considered necessary to provide some protection to cables.
The cables used in this system are either VIR or PVC insulated
cables.

It consists of rectangular wooden blocks made from quality

seasoned teak wood or any other quality wood called casing.The
casing consists of V-shaped grooves into which the wires are laid.
The casing is first fixed on the surface of the wall or ceiling by
means of wooden gutties and screws. The casing then covered at
the top by means of rectangular strip of wood known as capping
of same width as that of casing and is screwed to it. The casing
and capping are available in different sizes and the length in
which these available varies from 2.5 meters to 3 meters. The
casing and capping wring

❖TOUGH RUBBER SHEATHED (TRS) OR CAB TYRE SHEATHED

BATTEN WIRING:

The wires used in this system are T.R.S. or C.T.S. wires, which are
available in ingle core, twin core or three core with a circular or
oval shape. These cables are quite flexible and the insulation can
resist moisture, chemical, water, steam, but slightly affected by
lubricating oils. In this system, first wooden battens are secured
to the walls or ceiling by means of wooden screws and wooden
gutties. The wires are fixed on wooden batten with the help of
tinned brass link clips already fixed on the batten with brass pins
and spaced at an interval of 10 to 15 cm. The wooden battens
are made with seasoned teak wood and are available in different
sizes according to the width and thickness. The width are 13, 19,
25, 31, 38, 44, 50, 63, 69 and 75 mm, the thickness may be
10mm at least. The link clips are available length-wise 16 mm, 25
mm, 30 mm, 40 mm, 50 mm, 80 mm etc.
❖ LEAD SHEATHED OR METAL SHEATED WIRING:
This type of wiring consists of T.R.S. or P.V.C. insulated wires
with an outer covering of lead-aluminium alloy containing about
95% of lead. This metal sheath provides protection to the cable
against mechanical injury and atmosphere conditions. The cables
are fixed by means of the link clips on wooden batten. The lead
sheath must be earthed, at a point of entry to protect against
electrolytic action due to leakage current

❖ CONDUIT WIRING:
In general conduit means tube or channel. Tubular conduits are
most commonly used in electrical installations. When
wires/cables are drawn through the conduit and terminated at
the outlets (switches, holders, ceiling rose etc.), such a system of
wiring is known as conduit wiring.
There are four types of conduits, which are commonly
used. They are:
1. Rigid steel (metal) conduits.
2. Flexible steel conduits.
3. Rigid P.V.C. (non-metallic) conduits.
4. Flexible P.V.C. conduits.
The conduits are electrically and mechanically
continuous. The
conduits are available in lengths of 3.00 meters and in diameters
from 12 mm to 65 mm. The different sizes of conduits are 12
mm, 19 mm, 25 mm, 32 mm, 38 mm, 50 mm and 65 mm etc.
Conduit wirings are two types

➢SURFACE CONDUIT WIRING: In this system conduits are fixed

on the surface of the walls or ceiling by means of the saddles,
secured to wooden gutties with screws at an interval of not
more than one meter. The V.I.R or PVC cables are drawn by
mean of G.L. wire of size of about 18 SWG. The earth wire is
fixed by means of the earth clips. This system is generally
employed in workshops or factories etc. If metal conduits are
used they are cut with hacksaw and are threaded with die-set for
bends, junction boxes etc.

➢CONCEALED CONDUIT WIRING: In this system the conduit

(now-a-days P.V.C. is mostly used) is buried under the wall
(plaster) or ceiling. In this case first the channels are provided in
the wall and then the conduits are fixed in the channels by
means of clamps and hooks. Then the wires are drawn into the
conduits by means of G.l wire. As the wiring is done under the
plastic, so the whole of the system is made water tight to
prevent the entering of moisture. It is generally used in
domestic, offices, commercial etc.

Now-a-days P.V.C. conduits are extensively used in place of steel

conduits. There are cheaper in cost and require less time for
installation. They provide good protection against acid, alkalies,
oil and moisture. In P.V.C. conduits jointing is done with a special
made solution. The main drawback of P.V.C. conduit is that it
cannot withstand high temperatures, hence does not provide
protection against fire.
 AC MOTOR

An AC motor is an electric motor driven by an alternating

current (AC). The AC motor commonly consists of two basic
parts, an outside stator having coils supplied with alternating
current to produce a rotating magnetic field, and an inside rotor
attached to the output shaft producing a second rotating
magnetic field. The rotor magnetic field may be produced by
permanent magnets, reluctance saliency, or DC or AC electrical
windings.

An industrial type of AC motor with electrical terminal box at

the top and output rotating shaft on the left. Such motors are
widely used for pumps, blowers, conveyors and other industrial
machinery.

Less common, AC linear motors operate on similar principles as

rotating motors but have their stationary and moving parts
arranged in a straight-line configuration, producing linear
motion instead of rotation.
Construction
It is essential to comprehend the design and purpose of an AC
motor in order to fully appreciate how it works. Hereare the
foundations of the AC motor

Stator:

The part of a motor that is stationary and produces a rotating

magnetic field is called the stator. Metal laminations make up
the stator's central portion. The laminations reduce the energy
loss of the motor.

Stator Core:

The stack of stator windings is cylindrical and hollow in the

middle. Insulated wire coils are put into slots in the stator core.
When operated, these windings create an electromagnet that
generates the rotational magnetic field.

Rotor:

The part of an alternating current motor that moves is called

the rotor. It responds to the magnetic field produced by the
stator and is attached to the motor's shaft.
The most common type of rotor is a squirrel cage. The
conductor bars are dye cast, and the slots are evenly placed on
the cylindrical rotor.

The conductor bars provide mechanical and electrical

connections to the rings at either end.

Motor Shaft:

An electric motor's rotor is held in place by a steel shaft that

extends from the motor's housing. The motor's shaft transfers
the rotating output of the motor to another device or system.

Bearings:

Bearings support and stabilise the motor shaft, bearings lessen

the friction that develops between the shaft and the housing.
Energy loss is reduced while the motor's efficiency is raised.

Enclosure:

The enclosure that entirely encloses the motor protects its

interior parts from the elements. It guarantees the stability and
security of the construction and consists of a frame and two
end brackets.
Working:

The fundamental operation of an AC Motor depends on the

principle of magnetism. The simple AC Motor contains a coil of
wire and two fixed magnets surrounding a shaft. When an
electric (AC) charge applies to the coil of wire, it becomes an
electromagnet. This electromagnet generates a magnetic field.

Inside the stator, there is a solid metal axle, a loop of wire, a

coil, a squirrel cage made of metal bars and some other freely
rotating metal part that can conduct electricity. In an AC motor
you send power to the outer coils that make up the stator. The
coils energized in pairs, in sequence, producing a magnetic field
that rotates around the outside of the motor.
 Losses in an Induction Motor

1. Copper Losses (I²R : These losses occur due to the

Losses)
resistance of the winding wires in the stator and rotor
windings.
When current flows through these windings, heat is
generated according to the formula I²R, where I is the current
and R is the resistance of the winding.
2. Iron or Core Losses (Eddy Current and Hysteresis Losses):
These losses occur in the magnetic core of the motor due to
the alternating magnetic field. Eddy current losses result from
currents induced in the core material, causing local heating.
Hysteresis losses occur due to the reversal of magnetization in
the core material, leading to energy dissipation.
3. Mechanical Losses: These losses are associated with friction
and windage in the motor. Friction occurs between moving
parts such as bearings and gears, while windage losses occur
due to air resistance against rotating parts.
4. Stray Load Losses: These losses occur due to the leakage flux
in the motor. Some of the magnetic flux generated by the
stator winding does not link with the rotor, resulting in
energy loss.
5.Miscellaneous Losses: These include losses such as those due
to harmonics, which can arise from non-sinusoidal voltages or
currents in the motor.
 CONCLUSION
We have learnt about manufacturing and working of panel
boards. The theoreticalknowledge is worth getting a degree,
and it is accessible in the book. We only imagined about panel
boards when we read but due to this project we acquired a lot
of information regarding the panel boards.

We have acquired knowledge over our AC Machines lab and

also the panels board of AC lab. We learnt the components in
a panel board and also the tools required.

We also learnt the purpose of panels boards. They safeguard

against electrical hazards, protecting equipment and personnel
from potential risks. We also calculated the materials required
and the total cost calculations.

From this project we came to know practically about panel

boards. This project help us to extend our knowledge on panel
boards.