Digestiv

eSYSTEM
-alimentary canal or
gastrointestinal tract(GI
tract)
-accessory organs
 The alimentary tract of the digestive
system is composed of the mouth,
pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small and
large intestines, rectum and anus.
The mouth, or oral cavity, is the
first part of the digestive tract. It
is adapted to receive food by
ingestion, break it into small
particles by mastication, and mix
it with saliva. The lips, cheeks,
and palate form the boundaries.
The oral cavity contains the teeth
and tongue and receives the
 Food is forced into the pharynx by the tongue. When
food reaches the opening, sensory receptors around the
fauces respond and initiate an involuntary swallowing
reflex. This reflex action has several parts. The uvula is
elevated to prevent food from entering the nasopharynx.
The epiglottis drops downward to prevent food from
entering the larynx and trachea in order to direct the
food into the esophagus. Peristaltic movements propel
the food from the pharynx into the esophagus.
 The esophagus is a collapsible muscular tube that serves as a
passageway between the pharynx and stomach. As it descends, it
is posterior to the trachea and anterior to the vertebral column. It
passes through an opening in the diaphragm, called the
esophageal hiatus, and then empties into the stomach. The
mucosa has glands that secrete mucus to keep the lining moist
and well lubricated to ease the passage of food. Upper and lower
esophageal sphincters control the movement of food into and out
of the esophagus. The lower esophageal sphincter is sometimes
called the cardiac sphincter and resides at the esophagogastric
 The stomach, which receives
food from the esophagus, is
located in the upper left
quadrant of the abdomen. The
stomach is divided into the
fundic, cardiac, body, and
pyloric regions. The lesser and
greater curvatures are on the
right and left sides,
respectively, of the stomach.
 The mucosal lining of the stomach is simple
columnar epithelium with numerous tubular
gastric glands. The gastric glands open to the
surface of the mucosa through tiny holes called
Four different types of cells make
gastric up the gastric glands:
pits
•Mucous cells •Parietal
cells •Chief cells.
•Endocrine cells
 The secretions of the exocrine gastric
glands - composed of the mucous, parietal,
and chief cells - make up the gastric juice.
The products of the endocrine cells are
secreted directly into the bloodstream and
are not a part of the gastric juice. The
endocrine cells secrete the hormone
gastrin, which functions in the regulation
of gastric activity.
 The small intestine extends from the pyloric
sphincter to the ileocecal valve, where it empties
into the large intestine. The small intestine
finishes the process of digestion, absorbs the
nutrients, and passes the residue on to the large
intestine. The liver, gallbladder, and pancreas are
accessory organs of the digestive system that are
closely associated with the small intestine.
The small intestine is divided into the duodenum,
jejunum, and ileum. The small intestine follows
the general structure of the digestive tract in that
the wall has a mucosa with simple columnar
epithelium, submucosa, smooth muscle with inner
circular and outer longitudinal layers, and serosa.
The absorptive surface area of the small intestine
is increased by plicae circulares, villi, and
 Exocrine cells in the mucosa of the small
intestine secrete mucus, peptidase, sucrase,
maltase, lactase, lipase, and enterokinase.
Endocrine cells secrete cholecystokinin and
secretin.
 The most important factor for regulating secretions in the small
intestine is the presence of chyme. This is largely a local reflex
action in response to chemical and mechanical irritation from the
chyme and in response to distention of the intestinal wall. This is
a direct reflex action, thus the greater the amount of chyme, the
greater the secretion.
 The large intestine is larger in diameter than the
small intestine. It begins at the ileocecal junction,
where the ileum enters the large intestine, and ends at
the anus. The large intestine consists of the colon,
rectum, and anal canal.
Unlike the small intestine, the large intestine produces
no digestive enzymes. Chemical digestion is
completed in the small intestine before the chyme
reaches the large intestine. Functions of the large
intestine include the absorption of water and
electrolytes and the elimination of feces.
The rectum continues from the sigmoid colon to the
anal canal and has a thick muscular layer. It follows
the curvature of the sacrum and is firmly attached to
it by connective tissue. The rectum ends about 5 cm
below the tip of the coccyx, at the beginning of the
anal canal.
Accessory Organs has the salivary glands, liver,
gallbladder, and pancreas are not part of the
digestive tract, but they have a role in digestive
activities and are considered accessory organs.
 Three pairs of major salivary glands (parotid,
submandibular, and sublingual glands) and
numerous smaller ones secrete saliva into the oral
cavity, where it is mixed with food during
mastication. Saliva contains water, mucus, and
enzyme amylase.
Functions of saliva include the following:
It has a cleansing action on the teeth.
It moistens and lubricates food during mastication
and swallowing.
It dissolves certain molecules so that food can be
tasted.
It begins the chemical digestion of starches through
the action of amylase, which breaks down
polysaccharides into disaccharides.
 The liver is located primarily in the right
hypochondriac and epigastric regions of the
abdomen, just beneath the diaphragm. It is the
largest gland in the body. On the surface, the liver is
divided into two major lobes and two smaller lobes.
The functional units of the liver are lobules with
sinusoids that carry blood from the periphery to the
central vein of the lobule.
The liver has a wide variety of functions and many
of these are vital to life. Hepatocytes perform most
of the functions attributed to the liver, but the
phagocytic Kupffer cells that line the sinusoids are
responsible for cleansing the blood.
Liver functions include the following:
•secretion. •synthesis of bile salts
•synthesis of plasma protein. •storage
•detoxification. •excretion
•carbohyrate metabolism. •lipid metabolism
•protein metabolism. •filtering
The gallbladder is a pear-shaped sac that is attached
to the visceral surface of the liver by the cystic duct.
The principal function of the gallbladder is to serve
as a storage reservoir for bile. Bile is a yellowish-
green fluid produced by liver cells. The main
components of bile are water, bile salts, bile
pigments, and cholesterol.
 The pancreas has both endocrine and exocrine functions.
The endocrine portion consists of the scattered islets of
Langerhans, which secrete the hormones insulin and
glucagon into the blood. The exocrine portion is the major
part of the gland. It consists of pancreatic acinar cells that
secrete digestive enzymes into tiny ducts interwoven
between the cells. Pancreatic enzymes include anylase,
trypsin, peptidase, and lipase. Pancreatic secretions are
controlled by the hormones secretin and cholecystokinin.
Celiac Disease
is a chronic digestive and immune disorder that damages
the small intestine. The disease is triggered by eating foods
containing gluten. The disease can cause long-lasting
digestive problems and keep your body from getting all
the nutrients it needs.
Symptoms &
Causes
If you have celiac disease, you may experience digestive
symptoms or symptoms in other parts of your body.
Digestive symptoms are more common in children than
adults. Some people with celiac disease have no
symptoms.
Diarrhea
Diarrhea is loose, watery stools three or more times a day.
Diarrhea may be acute, persistent, or chronic. Acute
diarrhea is more common than persistent or chronic
diarrhea. Complications of diarrhea are dehydration and
malabsorption.
Symptoms &
cause
The main symptom of diarrhea is passing loose, watery
stools three or more times a day. You may also have other
symptoms. Causes of diarrhea include infections, food
allergies and intolerances, digestive tract problems, and
side effects of medicines.
Acid Reflux (GER &
Gastroesophageal reflux (GER) happens when your
GERD)
stomach contents come back up into your esophagus.
Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) is a more severe
and long-lasting condition in which GER causes repeated
symptoms or leads to complications over time.
Symptoms &
cause
Gastroesophageal reflux (GER) and gastroesophageal
reflux disease (GERD) commonly cause symptoms such
as heartburn and regurgitation. GERD may develop when
your lower esophageal sphincter becomes weak or relaxes
when it shouldn’t.
Appendicitis
an inflammation of your appendix, is the most common
cause of acute abdominal pain requiring surgery.
Untreated, it can lead to serious complications, such as
peritonitis or an abscess.
Symptoms &
cause
Appendicitis symptoms include abdominal pain, lack of
appetite, vomiting, constipation, or diarrhea. See a doctor
or go to the emergency room right away if you think you
or your child has appendicitis. Quick treatment prevents
most complications.
Constipation
is a condition in which you may have fewer than three
bowel movements a week; stools that are hard, dry, or
lumpy; stools that are difficult or painful to pass; or a
feeling that not all stool has passed. You usually can take
steps to prevent or relieve constipation.
Symptoms &
cause
If your constipation does not go away with self-care or if
you have long-term constipation, speak with a doctor. You
should see a doctor if you have constipation and either
bleeding from your rectum, blood in your stool, continual
pain in your abdomen, or another sign of a medical
problem.
 THAN
K
www.reallygreatsite.com