Leader ship Chương 4

Chapter 4
Part One: Individuals As Leaders
Contingency
Leadership Theories
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Leadership: Theory, application and skill development
with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 4-1
Leadership Theories
versus Leadership Models
• Recall, a leadership theory is an
explanation of some aspect of leadership.
> Theories have practical value because they
help us better understand, predict, and control
successful leadership.
• A leadership model is an example for
emulation or use in a given situation.
> All of the contingency leadership theories in
this chapter have a leadership model.
Exhibit 4.1
Framework for Contingency Leadership Variables
Effective leaders have an appropriate fit between the leader’s

behavior and style and the followers and the situation.
This list of general contingency leadership variables can be

used as a framework to place all the contingency leadership
model variables for analyzing leadership.
Global Contingency Leadership
• Contingency leadership is important to
today’s global economy.
> Global companies realize successful leadership
styles vary greatly from place to place.
> Effective leaders of today need multicultural
backgrounds and experiences.
> This reinforces the message of the global
contingency leadership.
Contingency Leadership Theory
• In 1951, Fred E. Fiedler developed the
first situational leadership theory.
• Fiedler called the theory “Contingency
Theory of Leader Effectiveness”.
> He was the first to develop a model to match
the leadership style to the job.
> He believed leadership style is a reflection of
personality and behavior, and that leadership
styles are basically constant.
Exhibit 4.2
Contingency Leadership Model Variables within the
Contingency Leadership Framework
The contingency leadership model is used to determine if a

person’s leadership style is task- or relationship-oriented, and if the
situation (leader-member relationship, task structure, and position
power) matches the leader’s style to maximize performance.
Leadership Style and the LPC
• When using Fiedler’s model, first determine
if your dominant leadership style is:
> Task-motivated,
o Gain satisfaction from task completion.
> Relationship motivated.
o Gain satisfaction through forming and maintaining
relationships with followers.
• To determine leadership style, complete
the least-preferred coworker (LPC) scales.
Situational Favorableness
• Situational favorableness refers to the
degree to which a situation enables the
leader to exert influence over the followers.
1. Leader-member relations:
Better relations lead to more favorable situations.
2. Task structure:
Structured jobs mean more favorable situations.
3. Position power:
The more power, the more favorable the situation.
Determining the Appropriate
Leadership Style
Use Fiedler’s contingency theory model to
determine which style is appropriate.
> If your LPC matches appropriate style, do
nothing.
> If you need to change styles, some examples:
o Improve relations – show more interest in followers.
o Structure the task – give clear deadlines.
o Empower followers – leaders can pass along power.
o Autocrat – leaders with weak power can gain power.
Exhibit 4.3
Fiedler Contingency Leadership Model
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Research, Criticism, and Applications
• Critics say research supports the model in
most situations but not as strongly in field
studies as in lab studies.
• Fiedler’s view of changing the job
context is not always easy say critics.
• But the model has application as it can
explain why some managers are
ineffective – no match of style to context.
Exhibit 4.4
Leadership Continuum Model Variables within the
Robert Tannenbaum and Warren Schmidt

developed a contingency theory – 1950’s.
Focus is on who makes the decisions.
Exhibit 4.5
Tannenbaum and Schmidt’s Leadership Continuum
Model
The leadership continuum model is used to determine which one
of seven styles to select, based on the use of boss-centered versus
subordinate-centered leadership, to meet the situation (boss,
subordinates, situation/time) to maximize performance.
Leadership Continuum Model
Before selecting one of the seven leadership
styles, consider three variables:
> Boss – based on personality and behavior, some
bosses are autocrats, some participative.
> Subordinates – the more willing/able followers are
to participate, the more participation should be
used – and vice versa.
> Situation (time) – size, etc. of organization is
considered, time is needed for participation.
Criticism – unclear when/how to use the model.
Exhibit 4.6
Path-Goal Leadership Model Variables within the
Developed by Robert House.
Behavior of the leader influences performance
and satisfaction of the followers.
Exhibit 4.7
House Path-Goal Leadership Model
The path-goal leadership model is used to select the leadership
style (directive, supportive, participative, or achievement-oriented)
appropriate to the situation (subordinate and environment) to
maximize both performance and job satisfaction.
Path-Goal Leadership Theory
and Model
• The leader is responsible for motivating
followers to attain organizational goals.
• Motivation is increased by:
1. Clarifying follower’s path to the rewards, or
2. Increasing the rewards followers value/desire.
o Path clarification means the leader works with
followers to identify and learn behaviors that lead
to accomplishment and reward.
Situational Factors - Subordinate
Authoritarianism Locus of Control Ability

• Extent employees • Extent employees • Extent of
defer to others. believe they control employees’ ability
goal achievement to perform tasks
(internal) or it is and achieve goals.
controlled by
others (external).
Situational Factors - Environment
Task Structure Formal Authority Work Group

• Extent of job • Extent of • Extent
repetitiveness. leader’s position coworkers
power. contribute to
job satisfaction.
Path-Goal Leadership Styles
• Directive:
o Leader provides high structure.
• Supportive:
o Leaders provides high consideration.
• Participative:
o Leader includes employee input into decision-
making.
• Achievement-Oriented:
o Leader sets difficult but achievable goals, and
o Makes the job challenging.
• Research supports path-goal theory but
with mixed results – inadequately tested
due to complexity.
• Criticized by managers because it is difficult
to know which style to use.
• Led to the theory of charismatic leadership.
• House broadened his theory and now calls
it value-based leadership theory.
Exhibit 4.8
Normative Leadership Model Variables within the
Victor Vroom and Philip Yetton asked:

When should the manager take charge and when should
the manager let the group make the decision?
Normative Leadership Model
• The normative leadership model has a time-
driven and development-driven decision tree
that enables the user to select one of five
leadership styles (decide, consult individually,
consult group, facilitate, and delegate)
appropriate for the situation (seven
questions/variables) to maximize decisions.
> Called normative model as it provides a sequential
set of questions that are rules (norms) that help
determine the best leadership style for the situation.
Leadership Participation Styles
• Decide:
o Leader makes the decision and announces it.
• Consult Individually:
o Leader individually tells followers the problem, gets suggestions, and
then decides.
• Consult Group:
o Leader holds group meeting, tells followers the problem, gets
suggestions, and then decides.
• Facilitate:
o Leader facilitates group meeting, seeking participation and
concurrence, without pushing his/her ideas.
• Delegate:
o Lets the group diagnose problem and make the decision.
Model Questions
1. Decision Significance:
Is the decision critical to the project or organization?
2. Importance of Commitment:
Is follower commitment vital for implementation?
3. Leader Expertise:
Is the leader experienced in this type of decision?
4. Likelihood of Commitment:
Are followers already committed to the decision?
5. Group Support for Objectives:
Do followers support the organizational goals?
6. Group Expertise:
Are group members experienced in this type of decision?
7. Team Competence:
Ability of individuals to work together as a team.
Appropriate Leadership Style
• To use the normative model:
o you must have a specific decision to make,
o the authority to make the decision, and
o followers to participate in the decision.
• Use the best model for the situation and
ask appropriate questions.
> Some questions may be skipped.
• Follow the decision tree to find best style.
• Research supports the model with a move
toward higher levels of participation,
greater empowerment, and use of teams.
• Critics say the model treats decisions as
single episodes and assumes leaders can
effectively use all five leadership styles.
• Not popular with managers who find it too
cumbersome.
• Popular in the academic community.
Exhibit 4.11
Names Given to the Same Two Leadership
Behavior Concepts
Prescriptive and Descriptive Models
• Prescriptive leadership models tell the user
exactly which style to use in a given
situation.
o Contingency and normative leadership models.
• Descriptive leadership models identify
contingency variables and leadership
styles without specifying which style to
use in a given situation.
o Continuum and path-goal leadership models.
Exhibit 4.13
Substitutes for Leadership Variables within the
Substitutes for leadership include

characteristics of the subordinate, task, and
organization that replace the need for a
leader or neutralize the leader’s behavior.
Substitutes and Neutralizers
• Variables which substitute or neutralize
leadership:
1. Characteristics of followers,
Ability, knowledge, experience, training, etc.
2. Characteristics of the task,
Clarity and routine, intrinsic satisfaction, etc.
3. Characteristics of the organization,
Formalization, flexibility, cohesive work groups, etc.
Leadership Style and Situation
• Leaders can analyze how these
characteristics substitute or neutralize
their leadership style.
• Leaders can change the situation rather
than their style.
• Substitute leadership can be used to
complement existing leadership.
• Research supports some aspects of the
theory, other aspects remain untested.
• Critics say for many substitutes, the formal
leader is merely replaced by similar
leadership behavior – so it still exists.
• Applications include strong evidence that
situational variables directly affect job
satisfaction and motivation.
Key Terms
• contingency • normative
leadership model leadership model
• descriptive • path-goal leadership
leadership models model
• leadership • prescriptive
continuum model leadership models
• leadership model • substitutes for
leadership

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Chapter 4

Part One: Individuals As Leaders

Effective leaders have an appropriate fit between the leader’s

This list of general contingency leadership variables can be

The contingency leadership model is used to determine if a

Robert Tannenbaum and Warren Schmidt

Authoritarianism Locus of Control Ability

Task Structure Formal Authority Work Group

Victor Vroom and Philip Yetton asked:

Substitutes for leadership include

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