CHAPTER -1

SOME BASIC CONEPTS OF

CHEMISTRY
BY ALFIYA MA’AM
“Chemistry is the science of atoms, molecules and
their transformations”.
Nature of matter

Anything which has mass and occupy space is called

matter.

States of matter
Classification of matter
 Pure Substances

A pure substance is one that is composed of only

one type of atom or one type of molecule.
For example , Pure silver contains only silver
atoms and pure table salt contains only sodium
chloride molecules.
Ex:- Sodium , Copper, Ex:- Water, Ammonia,
Silver, oxygen etc.. Carbon dioxide etc..
Mixture
 Unit of measurement

•Several properties of matter like length, area, volume etc.

Are quantitative in nature and are called physical
quantities.
• “A unit is defined as the standard of reference chosen to
measure a physical quantity.
 The International System of Units (S.I)
•This system was established by the 11th general conference on
Weights and Measurement.
•The SI system is classified into fundamentals unit, derived units
and supplementary units.

FUNDAMENTAL UNIT

In this system there are 7 base units, called the fundamental units
Which are independent and cannot be derived from any other units
Basic physical quantities and their units
Prefixes
The various prefixes are listed in the following table
Some Physical quantities

i. Mass and weight

• Mass(m) is the amount of matter present in a
substance.
• It remains constant for a substance at all the places.
• Its SI unit is Kilogram(Kg) but in laboratories usually
gram (1Kg = 1000g) is used.
• Analytical balance or electrical balance is used to
measure the mass of a substance.
• Weight(w) is the force exerted by gravity on an object.
• It varies from place to place due to change in gravity.
• Its SI Unit is Newton (N).
• w= m × g
• Where m = mass and g = gravity
ii. Volume
• The space occupied by matter is called its
volume.
volume = (length)3 = m3
• SI unit of volume is m3.
• In laboratory smaller volumes like cm3
(or millilitre) or dm3 (or Litre) are used.
• These terms are correlated as
1L = 1000mL = 1000cm3 = 1 dm3
1m3 = 106cm3 = 103cm3 = 103 L
 Practice time !!

1. Convert the following into basic units.

i. 28.7pm
ii. 15.15μs
iii. 25365 mg
iii. Density
• It is defined as the amount of mass per unit
volume.
• Its SI Units are kg m-3 or g cm-3.
• Kg or g represents mass and m3 and cm3
represents volume.
• Density = mass / volume
 Practice time !!

2. A liquid has a volume of 49.0 cm3 and a mass of 57.642

g. Find out the density of this liquid in SI unit.
iv. Temperature
• It is defined as the degree of hotness and coldness.
• Several scales are used to measure temperature,
three common scales are °C (degree Celsius),
K ( Kelvin) and °F (degree Fahrenheit).
• The lowest temperature permitted in nature is
-273.15°C (0K). This temperature is known as
absolute zero.

The relationship between Kelvin and Celsius scale is

°C = K – 273.15
K =°C + 273.15
The Celsius and Fahrenheit scale are related as
°F = °C × (9/5) + 32.
°C = (°F - 32) × 5/9
 Practice time !!

All in one question

3.Convert the following temperatures into degree Fahrenheit.
i. 25 °C ii. 35 °C

4. A measured temperature on Fahrenheit scale is 200 °F.

What will be this reading on Celsius scale?
 5. What is the SI Unit of mass ? How it is defined ? {NCERT}

6. Express each of the following in SI Units. {NCERT}

i. 28.7 pm
ii. 15.15 pm
iii. 25365 mg
NCERT Questions
7. Match the following
Prefixes Multiples
MICRO 106
DECA 109
MEGA 10-6
GIGA 10-15
FEMTO 10
8. Fill in the blanks in the following conversions
i.1 Km = mm = pm.
ii.1 mg = Kg = ng.
iii.1 mL = L= dm3
Scientific Notation
In scientific notation the number is written in
the standard exponential form as N×10n.

N= a no. with a single non-zero digit to the left

of the decimal point (means 1 to 10).
n= some integer.
Ex:- Ex:-
1.136.325 2.0.00025
 Practice time !!

9. Express the following in the scientific notation .

1) 186000 =

2) 4007 =

3) 0.0068 =

4) 700.0=

5) 7.0042=
Multiplication and Division
Exponents are added during multiplication and
subtracted during division.
1. (5.5×10⁵)×(2×10⁸)

2. (4.2×10-²)×(4×10-⁶)
Addition and subtraction

First the numbers are written in such a way that

they have same exponent.
1) 6.65 × 104 + 8.95 × 103 2) 2,50 × 10-3 − 4.8 × 10-3
 Precision and Accuracy
Precision means how closely the individual measurements
agree with one another.
Accuracy on the other hand means the closeness to the
experimental measurements and the true value.

Significant figures

The no. of significant figures in a measurement is the no of

figures that are known with certainty plus one that is
uncertain , beginning with the first non-zero digit.
 Practice time !!

10. State the number of significant figures in each

of the following numbers:-
1) 207.35 =
2) 0.00368 =
3) 653 =
4) 3.653 × 104 =
5) 0.378 =
6) 4.06 =
7) 0.060 =
8) 5.00 =
9) 500 =
10) 0.10100 × 103 =
Rounding off

1. If the digit following the last digit to be retained

is less than five, the last digit is left unchanged.
2. If the digit following the last digit to be retained is
more than five the last digit retained is increased by
one.
3. If the digit following the last digit to be retained is
equal to five , the last digit is left unchanged if it is
even and is increased by one if it is odd.
 Practice time !!

11. Express the following number to four significant figures.

1) 5.607892

2) 32.392800

3) 1.78986 × 103

4) 0.007837

5) 5.607592
Calculation involving addition and
subtraction

In addition and subtraction, the final result should be

reported to the same number of decimal places as the
number with minimum number of decimal places.

Ex:
Calculation involving multiplication
and division

In Multiplication and division, the final result should

be reported as having the same number of digits as
the number with least number of significant digit .

Ex:
 Practice time !!

12 . Express the following in the scientific notation. [all in one]

I. 0.000968
II. 157428
III. (5.7 × 106) × (4.2 × 10-2)
IV. (6.8 × 10-9) / (1.4 × 10-6)
V. (4.56 × 103 + 2.62 ×102)
VI. (9.87 × 10-3 – 2.26 × 10-4)

13. How many significant figures should be present in the answer of the
following calculations? . [all in one]
I. 0.02856 × 298.15 × 0.112 / 0.5785
II. 5 × 5.364
III. 0.8125 + 0.7864 + 0.8215
14. Express the result of the given calculation to the appropriate number of
significant figures. . [all in one]
3.24 × 0.08666 / 5.006
15. What do you mean by significant figures [NCERT]
16. Express the following in the scientific notation
i. 0.0048
ii. 234.000
iii. 8008
iv. 500.0
v. 6.0012
17. How many significant figures are present in the following? [NCERT]
i. 0.0025
ii. 208
iii. 5005
iv 126.000
v. 500.0
vi. 2.0034
18. Round up the following up to three significant figures: [NCERT]
i. 34.216
ii. 10.4107
iii. 0.04597
iv. 2808
 Laws of chemical composition

1) Law conservation of mass

During any physical or chemical change the total mass

of the products remains equal to the total mass of the
reactants.
Ex:
 Practice time !!

19) 10.0 g of CaCo3 on heating gave 4.4 g of CO2 and 5.6 g of CaO
show that these observations are in agreement with law of
conservation of mass.
20) If 6.3 g of NaHCO3 are added to 15.0 of CH3COOH
solution the residue is found to weight 18.0 g . what is the mass
of CO2 released in the reaction? [all in one]
21) What weight of BaCl2 would react with 24.4 g of
sodium Sulphate to produce 46.6 g of barium Sulphate and
23.4 g NaCL ?
22) 0.66 g of hydrocarbon on complete combustion with oxygen
gave 1.32 g of CO2 and 2.7 g of water show that these results are in
agreement with the law of conservation of mass.
2)Law of Constant Composition or
Definite Proportions

A chemical compound always contains same elements

combined together in same proportion by mass.

Like : H2O
2g:16g=1:8
 Practice time !!

23) 1.375 g of cupric oxide was reduced by heating in a current of

hydrogen and the weight of copper that remain was 1.098 g. In
another experiment, 1.179 g of copper was dissolved in the nitric
acid and the resulting copper nitrate converted into cupric oxide by
ignition. The weight of cupric oxide formed was 1.476 g. show that
these results illustrate the law of constant composition
 3) Law of multiple proportions

When two elements combine with each other to form two or

more than two compounds the masses of one of the element
which combine with fixed mass of the other bear is simple
whole number ratio to one another.
Ex: 1.
_Carbon monoxide (CO)_ 12 parts by mass of C combine with 16 parts
by mass of O.
Carbon dioxide (CO2)12 parts of mass of C combine with 32 parts
of mass of O.
 Practice time !!

24) Hydrogen and oxygen are known to form two compounds.

The hydrogen content in one of these is 5.93% while in the other it
is 11.2% .Show that this data illustrate the law of multiple
proportions.
 25) Carbon & oxygen are known to form two Compounds. The carbon
content in one of these is 42.9% while in the other it is 27.3 % . Show
that this data is in agreement with law of multiple proportions.
Law of Reciprocal Proportions

when two elements combine separately with a fixed mass of a

third element, then the ratio of their masses in which they do
so is either same or some whole number multiple of the ratio
in which they Combine with each other.
AVAGADRO’S
LAW
•Avogadro found that the smallest particle of a gas which can
exist independently is the molecule, not the atom, therefore,
the volume of a gas must be related to the number of
molecules (rather than atoms) present in it.

•He thus put forward the hypothesis known as Avogadro's

hypothesis, which states that equal volumes of gases at the
same temperature and pressure should contain equal number
of molecules.
APPLICATION OF AVOGADRO’S LAW ARE

(i) Calculation of Atomicity of Elementary Gases

Atomicity of an elementary substance is defined as the
number of atoms of the element present in one molecule
of that substance.
EXAMPLE
Atomicity of oxygen (O2) is two while that of ozone.
EXAMPLE
Hydrogen + chlorine ------> Hydrogen chloride
1 vol 1 vol 2 vol
(by experiment)
n molecule n molecule 2n molecule
(by Avogadro's law)
½ molecule ½ molecule 1 molecule
( on dividing whole equation by 2n)
It implies that one molecule of hydrogen chloride gas is made
up of ½ molecule of hydrogen and ½ molecule of chlorine.
Hence, ½ molecule of chlorine = 1 atom of chlorine
Therefore 1 molecule of chlorine = 2 atoms.
So its atomicity is 2.

ii) Finding a relationship between mass and volume

of gas
Molecular mass = 2× vapor density
Gay Lussac's Law of Combining volumes

when gases react with each other they do so in volumes

which bear a simple Whole number ratio to one another & to
the Volumes of products, if these are also gases, provided all
volumes cure measured under similar conditions of
temperature & pressure.
Dalton's Atomic Theory
In 1808, Dalton published a new system of chemical
philosophy in which he proposed the following:

1) Matter consists of indivisible atoms.

2) All atoms of a given element have identical properties,
including identical mass .Atoms of different elements differ in
mass.
3) Compounds are formed when atoms of different elements
combine in a fixed ratio.
4) Chemical reactions involve reorganization of atoms. These
are neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.
MOLE CONCEPT

PAIR 2 DOZEN 12
MOLE

1 MOLE = 6.022 × 1023

1 mole of pure gold=6.022×10²³ atoms

1 mole of pure water= 6.022×10²³ molecules

 Practice time !!

26) Calculate the number of moles

1) 3.011×10²³ atoms of He

2) 9.034 ×10²³ molecules of O2

3) 18.069 × 10²³ atoms of Ne

4) 2.0409 × 10 ²³ molecules of N2
ATOMIC MASS UNIT (a.m.u)

The quantity 1/12th mass of an atom of C-

12 is known as atomic mass unit.
ATOMIC
MASS
It is defined as the number which indicates how many times
the mass of one atoms of an element is heavier in
comparison to 1/12th part of the mass of one atom of C-12.

EX:-
1) 4amu for He
2) 7amu for Li
3) 16amu for oxygen
4) 14amu for Nitrogen
Gram Atomic Mass
Atomic mass of an element expressed in gram is
called its gram atomic mass or gram atom or it
may be defined as "that much quantity of the
element whose mass in gram is numerically
equal to its atomic mass".
Mean atomic mass

The weighted of the isotopic masses of the

element naturally occuring isotopes.

Mathematically,
Average atomic mass of x(Ax)= A1x1+a2x2+…+anxxn
100
 Practice time !!

27) Naturally occuring chlorine is 75% CL35 which

has an atomic mass of a.m.u and 25% CL37 which
has a mass of 37 a.m.u. Calculate the average
atomic mass of chlorine.

(A)35.5 a.m.u
(B)36.5 a.m.u
(C)71 a.m.u
(D)72 a.m.u
 28) Boron occurs in nature in the form of two
isotopes having atomic mass 10 and 11. What are
the percentage abundances of two isotopes in a
sample of boron having average atomic mass 10.8?
[all in one]
Molecular Mass

It is the sum of atomic masses of the elements

present in a molecule. Thus, it is obtained by
multiplying the atomic mass of each element by
the number of its atoms and then adding them
together
e.g. Molecular mass of methane can be calculated
as
CH4 = 1 x atomic mass of C + 4x atomic mass of H
= (12.011u) + 4 (1.008 u) = 16.043 u
29) Calculate molecular mass of glucose
(C6H1206) molecule. [NCERT problem 1.1]
Gram Molecular Mass or Gram Molecule

Molecular mass of a substance expressed in gram

is called its gram molecular mass or gram
molecule.

Gram molecular mass or gram molecule=

Molecular mass expressed in grams
30) (i) Calculate the gram molecular mass of
sugar having molecular formula C12H22O11

(ii) Calculate
(a) The mass of 0.5 g molecule of sugar and
(b) (b) Gram molecule of sugar in 547.2 g.
[all in one]
Suppose,
One dozen = 12 apples= 500g (mass)

36 apples =

2500gms =
 Practice time !!

31) Find the number of moles.

1.)12 g of Mg (24)
2.) 70 g of Li (7)
3.) 10.8 g of Ag (108)
4.)399 g of Au (197)
5.) 50 g of Hg (200)
6.) 6.5 g of Fe (55)
7.) 1.505 x 1023 atoms of C
8.) 15.05 x 1023 molecules of CO2
9.) 30.115 x 1023 atoms of Ne
10.) 1000 atoms of oxygen
Relation of mole with gas volume

Volume of one mole of a gas at STP is 22.4 litre.

Since one mole gas contain 6.023×10²³ molecules.

So 6.022×10²³ molecule have volume at STP =22.4 litre

Number of moles at STP = volume/ 22.4

Volume of one mole is fixed for a gas at STP=22.4
litre
 Practice time !!

32) Calculate the number of moles in.

a) 44.8 Lit of S02
b) 89.6 Lit of 02
c) 33.6 Lit of N2
d) 11.2 Lit f CO2
 33) Which of the following contains the largest number
of atoms

A) 11g of CO2
B) 4 g of H2
C) 5 g of NH3
D) 8 g of SO2
 34) Which one of the following will have the largest
number of atoms. [NCERT]

1.1g of Au(s)
2. 1g of Na (s)
3.1g of Li(s)
4.1g of Cl2 (g)
 35) The amount of oxygen in 3.6 moles of water is

[JEE mains-2014]
A) 28.8g B) 18.4g
C) 115.2g D) 57.6 g
 36)The ratio of masses of Oxygen and nitrogen in a
particular gaseous mixture is 1: 4 . The ratio of number of
the molecule is.
[JEE mains-2014 ]

A) 1:4 B) 7:32 C)1:8 D) 3:16

37) The maximum number of atoms is present
in which of the following:-
[NEET-2020]

1.1g of Mg (s)
2.1g of O2 (g)
3.1g of Li (s)
4.1g of Ag (s)
38). The number of atoms in 0.1 mole of a triatomic gas
is (NA = 6.02× 1023 MOL-1)

(AIPMT-2010)

1. 6.026 ×1022
2. 1.806 × 1023
3. 3.600 × 1023
4. 1.800 × 1022
 Practice time !!

39) In 394 grams of gold biscuit how many items are there
(molar mass of gold 197)?
40) In 360 grams of water filled in glass how
many moles of water molecules is there?
41) Number of Na atoms in 2.3 grams of Na wire.
42) Calculate the number of molecules in a drop of
water weighing 0.09 g.
43) Calculate the number of hydrogen and total atoms
in a drop of water weighing 0.09 gram.
44) Calculate the number of hydrogen atoms in 3.42
gram of sucrose.
45) Number of sodium atom in 5.75 gram of sodium.
46) Mr. Malhotra Presented a diamond ring of 0.1
mole to his wife Mrs. Malhotra on her birthday how
many grams of diamond have been presented.
47) Chlorophyll the green coloring material of plants
contains 3.68% of magnesium by mass calculate the
number of magnesium atom in 5.00 gram of the
complex.
48) Which has more atoms 1.0 gram of hydrogen
or 1 0 gram of carbon.
Formula
 Practice time !!

Questions including volume

49) Find number of atoms and mass of 11.2
liters of helium.
50) Find volume and mass and number of molecules in
two moles of O2.
51) Find number of molecules and mass of 11.2 liters
of CO2.
52) Find out the mass of 10 power 21 atoms of Cu
(63.5gm).
PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION :

Mass % of an element =

mass of that element in the compound× 100

molar mass of the compound
 Practice time !!

53) What is the percentage of carbon, hydrogen

and oxygen in ethanol ?
54) What is the percentage of hydrogen and
oxygen in water ?
55) The percentage composition of carbon by
mole in methane is:

[JEE MAINS ONLINE 2019]

(1)80%
(2)25%
(3)75%
(4)20%
56) ’x’ is molecular substance containing 21 atoms of
carbon per molecule. The weight % of A in ‘x’ is
50.4%.What is molecular weight of x
57) Every molecule of ammonia always has formula ntt2
irrespective of method of preparation or sources . i.e. 1 mole
of ammonia always contains 1 mole of N&3 mole of H. in
other wards 17g of NH3 always contains 14g of N & 3g of H.
Now find out % of each element in the compound.
58) An organic compound contains C,H&S. The
minimum molecular weight of the compound
containing 8% of S = 32 a.m.u

[JEE MAINS ONLINE

2016]

(1)300g mol-1
(2)400g mol-1
(3)200g mol-1
(4)600g mol-1
MPIRICAL FORMULA FOR MOLECULAR FORMULA

Empirical formula : It may be defined as the formula

which gives
the simplest whole number ratio of atoms of the various
elements
present in the molecule of the compound.
Eg. For glucose (C6H12O6)
 59). Write the empirical formula of the
compounds having molecular
formula :

(i)C6H6  (vi) B2H6 

(ii) C6H12  (vii) N2O4 

(iii) H2O2  (viii) H3PO4 

(iv) H2O  (ix) C2H2 

(v) Na2CO3  (x) Fe2O3 

Molecular formula

It may be defined as the formula which gives the

actual number of atoms of various elements
present in the molecule of the compound.
Eg. For ethane M.F. = C2H6
E.F. = CH3
Relation Between Two Formulae :

Molecular formula is whole number multiple of

empirical formula.

Molecular formula = n × Emp. Formula

 molecular formula Molecular mass
N= =
empirical formula empirical mass

Where n = 1,2,3,4…….
Determination of the Empirical Formula of a
Compound
The Various Steps involved in determining the empirical
formula are :
Step I Divide the percentage of each element by its atomic mass.
This gives the moles of atoms of various elements in the
molecule of the compound.

Moles of atoms = Percentage of an element

Atomic mass of the element
Step II Divide the result obtained in the above step by the smallest
value among them to get the simplest ratio of various
atoms.
Step III Make the values obtained above to the nearest whole
number and multiply, if
necessary, by a suitable integer to make the values
whole numbers. This
gives the simplest whole number ratio.

Step IV Write the symbols of the various elements side by side

and insert the
numerical value at the right hand lower corner of each
symbol. The formula
thus obtained represents the empirical formula of the
compound.
Steps for Determination of the Molecular
Formula of a Compound
Step I. Determine the empirical formula as described above.
Step II. Calculate the empirical formula mass by adding the atomic
masses of the atoms in the empirical formula.
Step III Determine the molecular mass by a suitable method.
Step IV. Determine the value of n as Molecular mass

n = MOLECULAR FORMULA
EMPIRICAL FORMULA
Change n to the nearest whole number.

Step V. Multiply empirical formula by n to get the molecular formula.

Molecular formula = n × Empirical formula.

60) . Determine the empirical formula of an oxide
of iron which has
69.9% iron and 30.1% oxygen by mass. [NCERT]
61) The molecular mass of an organic compound
is 78 and its percentage composition is 92.4% C
and 7.6% H. Determine the molecular formula of
the compound.
62) . An organic compound on analysis gave the following
percentage
composition : C = 57.8%, H = 3.6% and the rest is
oxygen. The MOLECULAR MASS of the compound was
found to be 166. Find out
the. molecular formula of the compound.
63) A compound on analysis gave the following
percentage composition :
Na = 14.31%, S = 9.97%, H= 6.22% and O = 69.50%.
Calculate the molecular formula of the compound on the
assumption that
all the hydrogens in the compound is present in
combination with oxygen as water of crystallization . The
molecular mass of the compound is 322.
[At. masses : Na = 23, S = 32, H = 1, O = 16]
64) An organic compound containing carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen gave the
following percentage composition :

C = 40.68%, H = 5.08%

The MOLECULAR MASS of the compound is 118.

Calculate the molecular
formula of the compound.
65) Naphthalene (moth balls) contains 93.71% carbon
and 6.29% hydrogen. If its
molar mass is 128 g mol–1, calculate its molecular
formula.
66) Complete combustion of 750g of organic compound
provides 420 g of CO2 and 210 H2O The percentage
composition of carbon and hydrogen in organic compound
is 15.3 and ____ respectively.

[JEE MAINS 2021]

 67) A gaseous compound of nitrogen and hydrogen
contains 12.5%(by mass) of hydrogen. The density of the
compound relative to hydrogen is 16. The molecular
formula of the compound is :
[JEE MAINS ONLINE
2014]

(1)NH2
(2)NH3
(3)N3H
(4)N2H4
68) Complete combustion of 1.80 g of an oxygen
containing compound (C2H202)gave 2.64 g of CO2 and 1.08
g of H20 the percentage of oxygen in the organic compound
is :

[JEE MAINS ONLINE

2021]

(1)51.63
(2)63.53
(3)53.33
(4)50.33
69) An organic compound contains 80% (by wt.) Carbon
and the remaining percentage of hydrogen. The empirical
formula of this compound is :-
[NEET 2021]
1.CH3
2.CH4
3.CH
4.CH2
69) The percentage of c,h,and n in an organic compound
are 40%,13.3%,and 46.7% respectively. the empirical
formula of the compound is :-
[AIPMT-2002]

1.C3H13N3
2.CH2N
3.CH4N
4.CH6N
Stoichiometry
Stoichiometry means the quantitative
relationships among the reactants and
the products in a reaction.
 Stoichiometry calculations

1. Mole of mole relationships

2. Mass of mass relationship

3. Mass volume relationship

4. Volume - volume relationship

 Practice time !!

70) How many Moles of hydrogen is needed to

produce 8 moles of water
71) How many moles of oxygen is needed to
produce five moles of water
72) What mass of nitrogen is needed to produce 8 moles of
ammonia by reaction with hydrogen
73) . How many liters of nitrogen at STP are
needed to produce 10 moles of ammonia by
reaction with hydrogen
74) . How many liters of hydrogen are needed to
produce 10 l of ammonia by reaction with
nitrogen
75) How many moles of iron can be made from
Fe2O3 by the use of 15 mole of carbon monoxide in
the following reaction
76) Calculate the weight of iron which will be
converted into its oxide by the action of 36 gram of
steam.
77) How much marble of 90.5% purity would be
required to prepare 10 liters of CO2 at STP when the
marble is acted upon by dilute HCl.
 78) .Calculate the mass of oxygen required to burn
14 gram of C2H4 completely.

.
79) Calculate the weight and volume of H2 at STP that
will be displaced by 1 gram of Zn where it is completely
dissolved in dilute sulphuric acid.
80) Complete combustion of 3g of ethane gives
X x 1022 molecules of water .The value of x……..
(round off to the nearest integer ).

[JEE MAINS ONLINE

2021]

[use NA =6.023 X 10^23, Atomic mass in u C:12,

O:16, H:1.0]
81) . The moles of O2 required for reacting with 6.8
gram of ammonia.
LIMITING REGENT

The reactant which is completely consumed when a

reaction goes to completion is called the limiting
reagent or limiting reactant.
Because its concentration limits the amount of
products formed.
The other reactants present in quantities greater than
those needed to react with the quantity of the limiting
reagent present would be left unreacted . It is also
called excess reagent.
2H2 + O2 --------> 2H2O
 Practice time !!

82) In a reaction

A + B -------------> AB

Identify the limiting reagent if any in the following

reaction mixtures :
(i) 300 atoms of A + 200 molecules of B
(ii) 2 mol of A + 3 mol of B
(iii) 100 atoms of A + 100 molecules of B
(iv) 5 mol of A + 2.5 mol of B
(v) 2.5 mol of A + 5 mol of B
83). If you are given with 2 moles of oxygen
and hydrogen each, identify
limiting and excess reagent ?

2H2 + O2--------> 2H2O

84) If you are given with 10 moles of oxygen and 20
moles of hydrogen,
identify limiting and excess reagent ?

2H2 + O2--------> 2H2O

85) If you are given with 3,3 moles of nitrogen and
hydrogen each, identify
limiting and excess reagent ?
N2 (g) + 3H2(g) --------> 2NH3(g)
86) If you are given with 28 grams of each
nitrogen and hydrogen, identify
limiting and excess reagent ?
N2(g) + 3H2(g) --------> 2NH3(g)
87) Calculate the amount of water in grams produced
by combustion
of 16 g methane (CH4).

CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) --------> CO2 (g) + 2H2O (g)

88) How many moles of methane are required to
produce 22g of CO2(g)
after combustions ?
CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) --------> CO2 (g) + 2H2O (g)
89) How many moles of methane are required to
produce 66g of CO2(g)
after combustions ?
CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) --------> CO2 (g) + 2H2O (g)
90) What mass of calcium oxide will be obtained
by heating 3 mol of
CaCO3 ?
CaCO3 --------> CaO + CO2 (g)
91) In a reaction

2A + B -------------> AB

Identify the limiting reagent if any in the

following reaction mixtures :
(i) 300 atoms of A + 200 atoms of B
(ii) 2 mol of A + 3 mol of B
(iii) 100 atoms of A + 100 atoms of B
(iv) 5 mol of A + 2.5 mol of B
(v) 2.5 mol of A + 5 mol of B
92) 2H2 + O2--------> 2H2O

Available moles
20 moles 12 moles

(i) Identify L.R.

(ii) Identify excess reagent & amount left.
(iii) Identify the amount of product formed.
(iv) How much more L.R. is required to complete
the process.
93) At constant T and P, 5.0 L of SO2 are reacted with 3.0
L of O2 according to the following equation,
2 SO2(g) + O2(g) ----> 2 SO3
(g). The volume of the reaction mixture at the completion
of the reaction is

(A) 0.5L (B) 8.0L

(C) 5.5 L (D) 5 L
94) According to the equation:
4NH3(g) + 5 O2(g)  4NO (g) + 6H2O (l);
when 1 mole of O2 and 1 mole of ammonia are mixed,
then

(A) 0.2 mole of H2O is produced

(B) 0.8 mole of NO is produced
(C) all the oxygen will be consumed
(D) all the ammonia will be consumed in order to form 1
mole NO
95) FOR A REACTION
N2(g) + 3H2(g)  2NH3(g)

Identify dihydrogen as a limiting reagent in the

following reaction mixtures .

[JEE MAINS ONLINE 2019]

1.14g of N2 + 4g of H2
2.28g of N2 + 6g of H2
3.56g of N2 + 10g of H2
4.35g of N2 + 8g of H2
96) The number of moles of hydrogen
molecules required to produce 20 moles of
ammonia through Haber's process is-
[NEET-2019]
1.40 mol
2.10 mol
3.20 mol
4.30 mol
Concentration in solution
Solution = Solute + Solvent
Solvent = Solvent is the component present in a
higher amount in the solution.

Solute = Solute is the component present in a

lower amount.
Concentration in solution

Solution = Solute + Solvent

(Minor component B) (Major component A)
Concentrated

Concentrated solutions
are dark in color and
have more solute or
less solvent than other
solution
Remember:

1.Concentration and dilution are ways to measure the

strength of a
solution.

2. Dilution and concentration are relative terms.

3. Dilute solution is one with a relatively lower amount

of solute in
the solution.

4.Concentrated solution is one with a relatively higher

amount of
solute in the solute.
Expressing Concentration of Solutions

1. Mass per cent or Per cent by mass

(w/w)
2. Mass Fraction
3. Molarity (M)
4. Mole Fraction
5. Molality (m)
6. Normality (N)
7. Parts per million (ppm)
 Mass per cent of Per cent by mass (w/w)

In case a solid dissolved in a liquid, the per cent by

mass means the amount of solute in
grams dissolved in 100 grams of the solution
99) A Solution contains 40g of Common Salt in 320g of
Water . Calculate the Concentration in terms of mass
percentage of solution ?

Mass of solute (Salt) = 40 g

Mass of solvent (Water) = 320 g
Mole fraction

It is defined as the ratio of the number of moles

of one component to the total number of moles
of the components present in the solution.
Mole fraction is generally denoted by symbol x.
 Mass of 6.023 × 1023 particles = Molar mass

Number of moles = Given mass = W

Molar mass M

W = Any random mass of substance

M = Fixed mass called as molar mass.
100) Can you tell number of moles and mole fraction of
solutions containing-

1. 49 g of H2SO4 in 180 g of water.

2. 1.7 g of NH3 in 90 g of water.

101) Calculate mole fraction of 18% glucose
in water.
Molarity (M)
It is defined as the number of moles of the
solute dissolved per liter or dm3 of the
solution.
Molarity changes with change in temperature.

Molarity is denoted by ‘M’

 Practice time !!

102) Calculate the molarity of a sodium hydroxide

solution which has been prepared by
dissolving 20 g of sodium hydroxide(40) in one liter of
solution.
103) How many moles and how many gram of sodium
chloride are present in 200
ml of 0.2 M NaCl solution ?
104) What is the concentration of sugar (C12H22O11) in
mol L–1 if its 20g are dissolved
in enough water to make a volume up to 2L ?
Terms used Molarity

Molar 1
Semi molar 1/2
Deci molar 1/10
Centimolar 1/100
Millimolar 1/1000
Dilution

What is dilution ?
Number of total moles of a solute during
dilution is conserved.
Molarity (M)

Moles of solute before dilution = Moles of solute

after dilution.

M1V1 = M2V2
 Practice time !!

105) 3.0 liter of water are added to 2.0 litre of 5 M HCl. What
is the molarity of HCl in the resultant solution ?
106) 100 ml of 10 M HCl are dilute with distilled
water a volume of 2 liter. Find out
molarity of the resultant solution.
107) A solution of glucose in water is labeled as 10
percent w/w. If the density of the
solution is 1.2 g mL–1. then what shall be the
molarity of the solution.
Molality (m)

The molality of a solution is defined as the number of

moles of solute dissolved per
1000 g or 1 kg of the solvent. It is represented by ‘m’
 Practice time !!

108) Out of 1 molar and 1 molar aqueous solution

which is more concentrated. Justify.
.
109) The density of 3m solution of sodium chloride is
1.252 g/ml . the molality of the solution will be :-

[JEE mains online 2013]

[molar mass ,NaCl = 58.5 g/ml]

1. 2.18 m
2. 3.00 m
3. 2.60 m
4. 2.79 m
110) The density of 2m solution of NaOH is 1.28g/ cm3 . the
molality of the solution is :-
[NEET 2019]

[molecular mass of NaOH = 40g/ml]

1. 1.20 m
2. 1.56 m
3. 1.67 m
4. 1.32 m
Parts per million (ppm)
It is the number of parts of the component
present per million parts of the solution.
 Practice time !!

111) A sample of drinking water was found to be severely

contaminated with chloroform,CHCl3 supposed to be
carcinogen. The level of contamination was 15 ppm (by
mass)

(i) Express this in percent by mass.

Normality (N)

It is defined as the number of gram equivalents

of the solute dissolved per litre
or dm3 of the solution.
It is represented by N.

Normality changes with change in temperature.

What is equivalent mass
Equivalent mass = Molar mass
n
Where n =

For acids
n = number of H+ ions

HCl ⇌ H+ + Cl– n=1

H2SO4 ⇌ 2H+ + SO4 ^-2 n=2

What is equivalent mass
Equivalent mass = Molar mass
n
Where n =

For Bases
n = number of OH+ ions

NaOH ⇌ Na+ + OH– n=1

Ca(OH)2 ⇌ Ca+2 + 2OH– n=2

112) Calculate equivalent weight of

(a) H2SO4
(b) Ca(OH)2
(c) NaOH
(d) HCl
(e) H3PO4
Normality (N)

Mathematically,

Normality (N) = G-equivalent of solute (B)

Volume of solution in litre

Normality (N) = WB (g)

GEMB × v (L)
The solution may be called as :

Term used Normality

Normal 1
Semi normal 1/2
Deci normal 1/10
113) Calculate normality of following solutions -
(a) 49 grams of H2SO4 in 1L solution.

(b) 74 g of Ca(OH)2 in 1L solution.

(c) 3.65 g of HCl in 2L solution.
(d) 4g of NaOH in one deciliter of solution.
114) What is the normality of the following?
• 0.13 M NaOH
• 0.0521 M H3PO4