THE MWALIMU NYERERE MEMORIAL

ACADEMY

EDU: 07303 EDUCATIONAL

PSYCHOLOGY

SEMESTER ONE
PSYCHOLOGY DEFINITION

The term psychology comes from two Greek

words, psyche- meaning the soul and logos-
meaning study or knowledge of a subject.
These two words were first put together to
define a topic of study in the 16th century.
By this time psyche was used to refer to the
soul, spirit, or mind as distinguished from
the body (Weiten, 2004).
PSYCHOLOGY
DEFINITION
Until this time psychology was not
yet studied as an independent
discipline, but its subject matter was
incorporated in the disciplines of
philosophy and physiology.
PSYCHOLOGY
DEFINITION
Therefore, the meaning of psychology is the
scientific study of human behavior and
mental processes
The science of behavior and mental processes
that seek to describe and explain aspects of
human thoughts, feelings, perceptions and
actions (mind) .
It is the science that studies behavior and what
goes on in the mind that causes behavior to
occur.
 PSYCHOLOGY
DEFINITION
These definitions comprises two important
elements.
i. Study of behaviour (any behaviour that can
be measured or observed)
ii) Study of the mind (both the conscious and
unconscious mental states).
 The Goals/Functions of
Psychology
In general the goals/functions of psychology as a
science are to describe, understand, predict and
control human behavior and mental processes.
Description
One of the first goals of psychology is simply to
describe behavior.
Through describing the behavior of humans and
other animals, we are better able to understand it
and gain a better perspective on what is considered
normal and abnormal.
The Goals/Functions of
Psychology
Understanding/Explaining
Psychologists are also interested in
explaining behavior in addition to merely
describing it.
Why do people do the things they do?
What factors contribute to development,
personality, social behavior, and mental
health problems?
The Goals/Functions of
Psychology
Prediction
Psychology also attempts to predict
behavior. Prediction is the ability to
forecast behavior accurately.
It is offering educated guesses or
hypothesis about how a given condition
or set of conditions will affect behavior
and mental processes.
The Goals/Functions of
Psychology
The purpose of prediction is to determine
when an individual will make healthy or
unhealthy choices or how an individual will
perform within environment and stimuli.
Once we understand more about what
happens and why it happens, we can use
that information to make predictions about
when, why, and how it might happen again
in the future.
The Goals/Functions of
Psychology
For example, if researchers notice that scores on a
specific aptitude test can be used to predict high
school dropout rates, that information can then be
used to estimate how many students in a particular
group might drop out of school each year.
Controlling/changing
Finally, and perhaps most importantly, psychology
strives to change, influence, or control behavior in
order to make positive changes in people's lives.
The Goals/Functions of
Psychology
In our previous example,
researchers might take what they
know about the link between scores
on an aptitude test and dropout
rates and use the information to
develop programs designed to help
students stay in school.
EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

The study of the learner, learning and

teaching.
Focuses on the learner and his/her interaction
with the learning material, the learning
environment and the teacher who provides the
learning opportunity.
EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

 Guides educational practice.

Explains the influences of family and

community on teaching and learning.

 EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

Focus areas of Educational Psychology

The learner

The learning process

The learning environment

 EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY….

1.The learner

•The learner is the focus of any teaching.

•There is no teaching without the learner.

•Ed. Psych. help the teacher to understand the

learner and the learning process.

EDUCATIONAL
PSYCHOLOGY….
 The Teacher can understand the learner through:-

 - Consideration on growth and development

patterns of learners.

- Maximizing learning opportunities that aim to

help the learner.

EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY….
In the learning process, learners can be
influenced by various factors:-
Developmental level – cognitive – mental ability/level
Physical - (maturation)
Motivation and Interests - Readiness to learn
Attitude - A positive mental attitude facilitate learning
EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
Other factors include:-

Culture - beliefs and values, can influence

learning.

Family background - Nutrition, health

Prior knowledge - Experience

 EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

Why it is important to consider these factors

when focusing on the learners during
teaching and learning process.
They determine the following:-
- The content structure, (subject matter)
- Teaching methods
- Assessment methods
 EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY….
2. The learning process
Refers to the process by which people change their
behaviour, improve performance, reorganize their
thinking or become familiar with new concepts and
information.
Learning results from a change in the individual
behavior through experience and practice.
- This process takes place from birth till
death.
 EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY….

Key aspects in the learning process include:

1. Change in behavior.

- Indirectly observed (perceiving, thinking, remembering and

Identifying)

- May be observed (writing, reading, attending and talking).

2. Learning as a continuous process

Is an ongoing process that begins at birth and it continues
until death.
 EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY….
3. Learning explains what, why, and how students
learn.
- Learning can be explained in terms of what
happens when students learn, why and how they
learn.
EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY….

3. The learning environment

The learning environment refers to the different physical

locations such as (classrooms, lecture theatres and labs,

and the library), contexts, settings, where the learning

process takes place and where learners find themselves.

It includes in and outside-of-school surrounding.

 EDUCATIONAL
PSYCHOLOGY….
Learning environment is broader, it also
include:-
- Activities that support learning.(Practical
-activities, Debates).

- Use of technology.
- Assessment methods that measure
and determine learning.
EDUCATIONAL
PSYCHOLOGY….
NOTE:
Learning environment can be influenced
by culture
That is, the choice of content, the skills
and attitudes to be promoted, the
relationship between teachers and
students.
THE ROLES AND FUNCTIONS OF
EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
i. To determine meaningful educational goals
- Desired educational goals to be achieved.
ii.To ensure effectiveness in teaching and learning

-more effective and meaningful learning

iii.To guide the learning processes with
consideration on the learner & learning
environment.
 THE ROLES OF EDUCATIONAL
PSYCHOLOGY….

iv. To evaluate and influence the curriculum changes which may

be needed to make learning more relevant.

v. To help in solving learning problems

vi. To help(teachers) in selection of suitable materials according to

the student’s background.

vii. To guide how children can receive social learning and be

guided to perform social services that may benefit their
Implications of Educational Psychology
to Classroom Situations

Educational Psychology allows the teacher

to know the tone of his/her classroom. i e
-It assists the teacher to understand the
behaviour of every member of his/her
classroom.
It affords the teacher the opportunity to
know the factors that can enhance or
impede teaching-learning activities.
Implications ………
It helps the teacher to appreciate the
importance of motivation, and how and
when to motive the students in the
classroom.
It equips the teacher to know or be able
to predict what might likely happen to a
learner in terms of his/her personality,
developmental stages and psychological
problem.
Implications ………
It gives the teacher the opportunity of
varying his/her instructional strategies
based on the behaviour of the students in
the classroom.
-It is a known fact that no particular
instructional method is regarded as the
best.
Implications ………
-The viability of any instructional method
is based on learners’ characteristics as
well as the instructions to be delivered at
a particular time.
Educational Psychology enables the
teacher to understand the interest of the
learners and how to follow this in planning
the curriculum or learning contents.
 Psychology & common sense
Common sense is a basic ability to perceive,

understand, and judge things, which is shared and

agreed/ accepted by most people.

It is what everyone knows. (beliefs and skills)

Psychology & common sense
Common sense is influenced by different
factors such as personality, mood, external
influences, etc. Hence:-

It is subjective.

It is inaccurate and biased.

Psychology & common sense
Psychology is objective. – Systematic study
of behaviour.
Focus on prediction and control of
behaviour.
NOTE: Psychological findings can
become well-known, people incorporate
them into their intuitive thoughts and
behaviour.
 LEARNING THEORIES
BEHAVIOURAL LEARNING THEORIES
Focus on observable (overt/evident) and
measurable aspects of human behaviour.

Ignore individual inner unobservable

characteristics.
- subconscious motives or covert/hidden
cognitive processes (interests, attitudes etc.).
BEHAVIOURAL LEARNING THEORIES

John B. Watson (1878-1958) and B. F.

Skinner (1904-1990) and Edward Thorndike
are psychologist under behaviourist
perspective in learning.

Watson's ideas about learning based also

on Ivan Pavlov(1849-1936) studies on
(Classical conditioning).
 BEHAVIOURAL LEARNING THEORIES
Assume that:
Human behaviour is learned and acquired through
environmental conditioning. S – R.

Individual have limited control of the internal

conditions that shape human behaviour. Hence they
tend to respond to any stimulus randomly and
automatically.
 BEHAVIOURAL LEARNING THEORIES
The desired response must be rewarded in order
for learning to take place.

Human behaviour can be unlearned if the

behaviour is not repeated or associated with the
response (extinction).
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Classical conditioning - The learning that
occurs when a neutral stimulus becomes
associated with a stimulus that naturally
produces a response (behaviour).

Determined whether external stimulus

has the effect in the learning process.
 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Pavlov and the experimental dogs.
The bell was rung at repeated feedings, later the
sound of the bell alone (a conditioned stimulus) caused
the dogs to salivate (a conditioned response).

The conditioned response was suppressed when the

bell rang and no food was provided.
Eventually salivation ceased at the sound of the bell.
(Extinction)
 CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING
Extinction
Is the disappearance of association between the
conditioned stimulus and the conditioned response.
How?
If a behaviour is not repeated or associated with the
stimulus- the response slowly declines until it disappear
completely - over time
Extinction does not happen suddenly or immediately.
Thus, initial learning can be unlearned.
 CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING
1.Before Conditioning:
(UCS) Food→ Salivation (UCR) - Automatic

2. During Conditioning:
Bell + Food→ Salivation
NS + UCS → UCR
3. After Conditioning:
(CS) Bell only→ Salivation (CR)
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

 Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that brings about a response
without having been learned.
 Unconditioned response (UCR)
A response that is natural and needs no
training in order to occur.
 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

 Neutral stimulus (NS)

A stimulus that before conditioning has no effect
on the desired response.
 Conditioned stimulus (CS)
A previously neutral stimulus that has been
paired with an unconditioned stimulus to bring
about a response previously caused only by the
unconditioned stimulus.
OPERANT CONDITIONING
Operants are actions /voluntary responses
which are performed deliberately and are
influenced by their consequences.

Operant conditioning
Is a type of learning in which learning
depends on the (positive or negative)
consequences of behaviour.
OPERANT CONDITIONING
B.F Skinner used a box (skinner box) to
study operant conditioning where a rat
learned to obtain food. How?
A rat pressed a handle randomly and
received food.
It pressed a handle again(repeat) after
obtaining food.
OPERANT CONDITIONING
In Skinner experiment:
Handle-pressing is an operant.

The food is a reinforcer.

 OPERANT CONDITIONING
According to B.F Skinner:
Behaviour that receive favourable/positive
outcomes (reward) tend to be repeated.

Behaviour that receive unfavourable/negative

outcomes(punishment) are not repeated.
Satisfying responses are conditioned, while
unsatisfying ones are not.
OPERANT CONDITIONING
Thorndike also used a puzzle box in
which a cat learns to press and escape
the box and receive food.

After several trials, a cat managed to

associate between the stimulus and the
response without any awareness that
the connection existed.
OPERANT CONDITIONING
According to Thorndike:
Animals and people solve problems
through trial and error learning.

Successful acts become more

frequent/repeated while unsuccessful
acts are reduced or stopped.
OPERANT CONDITIONING
Both negative and positive reinforcement increase
the desired behaviour.
Negative Reinforcement

Refers to the removal of unpleasant stimulus (negative

stimulus) from the environment leading to an increase of a
response.

Negative reinforcement strengthens a behaviour.

 OPERANT CONDITIONING

Positive Reinforcement
A stimulus added to the environment to bring
about an increase of a response
(desired behaviour).

Positive reinforcement also strengthens a

behaviour.
 OPERANT CONDITIONING
Punishment
Refers to unpleasant stimulus that decreases the
frequency of a particular response.
Eg. Coping assignment from other groups - to be
graded less marks ( - 8 marks)

Punishment – Weaken undesired response

through application of an unpleasant stimulus.
 APPLICATION OF BEHAVIOURAL
LEARNING THEORIES IN
CLASSROOM
Positive reinforcement can be applied in a
classroom in order to reinforce desired
behaviour.
- Praising students' for good performance
- Clapping for correct answers
A teacher can also condition his/her students
to:-
- Be punctual in class.
-Submit assignment on time
APPLICATION OF BEHAVIOURAL LEARNING THEORIES IN CLASSROOM

-Punishment can be used in handling

disciplinary problems, un wanted behaviour.
e.g Aggressive behaviour,
CRITICISMS OF BEHAVIORISM

It oversimplifies the complexity of human

behaviour as it ignored the internal
mental processes.

Based on cognitive perspective the

process of linking stimuli and responses
is influenced by mental processes.
 Humanistic Theory
According to Carl Rogers (1902-1987)

humanistic theory focuses on thinking and

emotions.
It focuses on the self-concept and free will.
It explains that individuals possess personal
choice.
 Humanistic Theory
Self-concept is an individual's knowledge of him or
herself.
It allows perceptions of individuals’ own behaviour,
characteristics and abilities.
self-concept has three components:
-self-image (mental image one has of oneself),
-self-esteem (sense of self-worth or personal value),
-ideal - self (how one want to be)
Humanistic Theory
Self-concept - can be influenced by
the following:
i) individuals’ own motivation/desire to
seeking self-understanding.
ii)social situations - Where an individual
is attached and interact with others
Humanistic Theory
Carl Rogers believed that:-
- Each individual strives to reach their
full potential.
- Individuals possess dignity and worth.
- Individuals desire to be in harmony with
others.
Humanistic Theory
Rogers developed known as client-
centered approach.
He believed that clients are capable of
choosing and make choices on issues
related their lives.
APPLICATION
Through student-centered approach: –
It help to encourage students participation in
teaching and learning.
Encourage students and motivate them to
engagement in learning.
Allow learners to make choices that can
range from daily activities to future goals.
Encouraged students to choose specific
subject area of interest.
 STRENGTH OF HUMANISTIC
THEORY

Strengths of humanistic Theory in education:

It sees the potentials in every individual and

the need to encourage it.

It views a child in a holistic, manner that is

cognitive, social and emotional aspects
 WEAKNESSES OF HUMANISTIC
THEORY
Weaknesses of humanism in education include:

 It emphasises the learner to choose what to learn.

Hence, it is difficult to apply it in teaching and

learning because learning is based on the curriculum
and specific subject syllabus.
 MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF
HUMAN NEEDS THEORY
According to Maslow human beings are motivated
by a hierarchy of needs.

The needs are organized in a hierarchy

The basic needs must be met before attaining

the higher needs.
 HIERARCHY OF HUMAN
NEEDS THEORY….CONT
The needs are achieved in an orderly
manner (bottom – up).

When one level is fulfilled/ satisfied a

person will be motivated to achieve another
step in the hierarchy.
 HIERARCHY OF HUMAN
NEEDS THEORY….CONT
The following are the levels in the hierarchy of human
needs:-

1. Physiological needs - these are the most basic

needs for human survival. They are related to
survival. (e.g., food, drink, air, shelter, clothing,
warmth, sleep).
 HIERARCHY OF HUMAN
NEEDS THEORY….CONT
 The human body require basic needs for proper
functioning.

 Basic needs are achieved easily by most human beings.

 According to Maslow, the other needs in the hierarchy

depend on the satisfaction of basic needs.
 2. Safety needs - protection, security, order, law, stability
Safety needs appear when physiological needs are fulfilled. Safety needs assure that the individual is free from danger, fear, and chaos

HIERARCHY OF HUMAN NEEDS THEORY….CONT

2. Safety needs - protection, security, order, law, stability

 Safety needs appear when physiological needs are fulfilled.

 Safety needs assure that the individual is free from danger

and fear.
 HIERARCHY OF HUMAN
NEEDS THEORY….CONT
3. Love and belongingness needs –

This is the third level of human needs.

It comprises the feelings of belongingness and the need for

interpersonal relationships. (the need for friends, family, being
part of a group, and having intimate relationship).

An individual seek trust, acceptance, being loved and being

loved.
 HIERARCHY OF HUMAN
NEEDS THEORY….CONT
4. Esteem needs – Are classified into two categories:
(i) Esteem for oneself (dignity, achievement, mastery,
independence/freedom)
(ii) The desire for respect from others (e.g., prestige, status,
feeling of accomplishment).
According to Maslow the need for respect is very important for
children and adolescents and it comes first before real self-
esteem or dignity.
Feelings of loneliness, inferiority and emptiness is experienced
when these needs are not satisfied.
 HIERARCHY OF HUMAN
NEEDS THEORY….CONT
5. Self-actualization needs –

According to A. Maslow self-actualization refers to the

person’s desire for self-fulfillment, based on one’s ability.

It involves recognition of personal potential, self-

fulfillment, looking for personal growth and greatest
experiences/capabilities.
 HIERARCHY OF HUMAN
NEEDS THEORY….CONT
NOTE:
Self-actualization needs differ from one person to
another.
For example:-
The desire to be famous/ well - known musician,
soccer player, athlete/sportsperson
Desire to be an ideal/perfect mother or father, painter,
famous business woman/man.
HIERARCHY OF HUMAN
NEEDS THEORY….CONT
 HIERARCHY OF HUMAN NEEDS
THEORY….CONT

Everyone has the desire/wish to climb up the

hierarchy of needs.
However, the progress in the hierarchy is
limited by inability to fulfill the lower level
needs due to the following reasons:-
 HIERARCHY OF HUMAN
NEEDS THEORY….CONT
Un employment/ loss of a job
Divorce
Natural disasters
Hence up and down movements in the
levels of the hierarchy tend to be
experienced.
 HIERARCHY OF HUMAN NEEDS
THEORY….CONT
There is flexibility in the order of needs depending on the following:
external conditions/situations or
 environment differences and
 individual differences. Hence, the order is not rigid
 APPLICATION IN TEACHING
AND LEARNING

1. Based on the theory, the basic physiological needs of

students are to be satisfied before their cognitive needs.

For example:-

i. Students need food in order to concentrate in classroom

activities.

ii. Students need to be in a good health state in order to

participate effectively in teaching and learning.
 APPLICATION IN TEACHING
AND LEARNING
2. Students need to be emotionally safe. because learners
with a low self- esteem tend to preform poorly.

 They must be shown that they are accepted, valued and

respected in the classroom and school at large.

 They need to be assisted to reach their potential.

NOTE: Learners with a low self- esteem tend to preform

poorly.
 APPLICATION IN TEACHING
AND LEARNING
3. The school and classroom environment
need to be conducive and supportive.
It helps learners achieve their goals
through the levels in the hierarchy.
 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT IN
LEARNING PROCESS
Human Development represents changes
in an organism from conception to death.
It is also known as Developmental Psychology
Developmental psychology is the scientific
study of human behaviour in relation to age.
HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT……
It is a pattern of change over time which begins at
conception and continues through life span (from
conception to death or cradle to grave).
Embryo→ Birth→ Adulthood→ Old age→ Death.
It refers to qualitative changes taking place
simultaneously with quantitative changes of
growth.
HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT……
The changes are progressive, orderly
and directional (forward rather than
backward).
The changes are orderly and consistent.
Developmental Psychology focuses on
biological (nature) and environmental
(nurture) factors that contribute to human
development
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
…….
Heredity and Environment
Heredity (nature) refers to the biological
characteristics which are transmitted by
the parents to their children through genes.
It is a biological process of transmission of
certain behaviour traits from parents to the
children, through the fertilized egg.
HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT…….
Heredity is considered in terms of
several generations and not a single
generation.

(Parents)___________(grandparents)
Studies proved that a child inherits some
qualities which may not be present in
his/her parents but are present in
grandparents.
HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT…….
Heredity traits are innate; (inborn)
they are present at birth.
Heredity is not the only aspect
responsible for growth and physical
differences.
The environment also has its influence.
HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT…….
Environment shape our behaviour and
relationships with other people as one
grows.
The experiment done on the identical
twins
who were reared in different
environments showed the following:-
HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT…….
i)Physical traits (eg height) are least
affected by the environment.
ii) Achievement and various skills are
more sensitive to environmental
influences.
iii)Personality characteristics are mostly
affected.
HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT…….
Both heredity and environment are
important in human development and
learning as they both determine human
behaviour.

Heredity and environment interact to

produce their effects in human
development.
HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT…….
Key Concepts in Human Development
Growth: is the quantitative physical changes
overtime.
In growth we talk of the increase in height, weight
and size or shape of body muscles from one stage to
another.

Growth is obvious and visible determined by time

and nutrition.
HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT…….
Therefore, growth is the function
of time + nutrition.
Growth ceases when an individual
reaches a certain age.
Eg between 18-19 years no vertical
growth.
HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT…….
Growth depends on different factors
which play their part from conception.
The mother’s health, food habits,
climate, living conditions, occupation,
exercise, modes of walking and sleeping.
All these influence the body structure.
HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT…….
Development: is the total process of the evolution of
man in different environments.
It is the qualitative changes in nature.
It is a comprehensive and continuous process e.g.
sitting down, standing up, speaking etc. Development
is a lifelong process.
Growth and development differs among children
and adolescents as they grow at different rates.
Why? - Individual are unique
 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT…….

Maturation: Is the biological processes in which

organs become fully functional.
Refers to the physiological changes or internal
metabolic changes and processes which in the
course of growth reaches the plateau or peak
such that we don’t need the growth anymore.
It occurs without any conscious effort on the
part of the individual.
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT…….
Examples are: maturation in sex organs, intellectual
competence, language competence, coordination of our
organs etc.
Maturation influences the process of learning.
If an individual has not achieved the necessary level
of maturity, a particular learning behavior cannot
occur.
e.g A child learns to sit, craw and walk when
reaching a particular stage in development. Learning
to (sit, craw, stand and walk) are attributed by
maturation.
 HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT…….
Maturation and learning work together to
help children develop physical skills. How?
Eg.(1) A child can paint /colour pictures
correctly, (paint colour inside the lines) as a
result of physical maturation.
A child ability to develop hand-eye
coordination and fine motor skills.
HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT…….
(2)A child ability to ride a bicycle.

Maturation provides the strength,

balance and coordination for the child to
ride the bicycle.
HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT…….
Learning: is a relatively permanent
change in behaviour which results
from experience or practice.
It is the modification of our behaviour
based on one’s experience.
It is an ongoing/continuous process
that takes place throughout our life.
HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT…….
DOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENT
Human development is often broken down
into several areas (domains) such as
physical, intellectual, emotional, moral
(spiritual) and personality development.
Domains of development that will be
focused in this lecture are physical,
cognitive and psychosocial.
 HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT…….
Physical Development
Some developmental psychologists focus on the
changes and influences that occur during specific
stages of life.
Divided into 7 stages; Prenatal , infancy; childhood -
early, mid and late; adolescence; early adulthood;
middle age and old age.
At each stage, specific physical changes occur that
affect the individual’s cognitive and psychosocial
development.
 PHYSICAL
DEVELOPMENT….
Prenatal Development (conception-birth)
Human development begins with conception, the fertilization of an egg by a
sperm.
Sperm and Ovum pair up to form zygote from Greek word Zugōtos which
means joined (an ovum that has been fertilized by a spermatozoon) with 46
chromosomes with complex molecules called deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
Prenatal Development has 3 stages:
Germinal Stage – Starts with fertilization to 2 weeks after conception.
- Sperm cell combine with female egg to form a zygote.
Embryonic stage – Starts from 2 weeks after conception to two months.
- All major organs are formed.
PHYSICAL
DEVELOPMENT….
Fetal stage – Two months after conception to
birth.
-Sex organs are formed
-Borns and muscles are formed
-Brain develop and increase rapidly
-Organs system start to function (respiratory and
digestive systems).
- By 12th week the foetus start to move, heartbeats can
be heard.
 Reading Assignment

What are the Factors affecting Human Development during Pre-Natal

Stage
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT….
Infancy (Birth to 2Years). This is a tender period and
has a high mortality rate.
Characteristics
Body mastery and control.
The fine motor skills are performed.
Balance, coordination, stability are achieved by the
first year.
Ability to manipulate objects is improved
A child walks by the end of the first year.
 HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT…….
Early Childhood (2-6Years)
The period is good for language development and social
interaction, rich environment, variety of experience
Most basic motor abilities appeared.
Existing skills are practiced and perfected ( be
applied in challenging and complex situations).
The child develops competence and can master
challenges in the environment, such as bicycles,
balls, eating utensils and other objects.
The child is ready to master toilet training.
PHYSICAL
DEVELOPMENT….
Middle and late childhood (Age 6-11 Years)

The child practices and masters complex

motor skills

Growth rates slow and children are able to

perfect/improve their motor skills.
 HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT…….
Adolescence(Age 12-18 Years). A period of great physical,
social, emotional, physiological and psychological change.
Characteristics
•Rapid growth, weight and height increase rapidly.
Maturity and rapid growth of reproductive organs, (Puberty)
and development of secondary sex characteristics
Breasts for girls, deepening voice in boys
Puberty begins at age 11 or 12 for girls and 13 or 14 for
boys.
Note: There can be variation eg 8-9 for girls and 16yrs for
boys.
HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT…….
20-40 (Early adulthood)
Mark the peak of physical health.
-People strength is greater.
-Reproductive capacities are at the highest
level
Physical changes are less apparent/ visible
and more gradual than changes that occur in
other stages.
 HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT…….
Middle adulthood(45 -65)
weight increase however this can be avoided through exercise
Gradual physical decline occur.
Sense organs become less sensitive and it takes time to react to stimuli.
Women begin menopause (a biological change) they stop menstruation.
Sperm declines occur for men however they remain fertile and capable
of fathering children.
Physical declines in this stage are minor and unnoticeable for both
male and female.
HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT…….
Late adulthood(65 years and above)
Physical change are brought by aging process
Hair thinning and turning gray
Skin wrinkles
Sensory capacity decreases as a result of aging-
vision. Hearing, smell and taste become less
sensitive.
Reaction time decline because oxygen intake and
heart pumping ability decline.
 HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT…….
Physical development – can be influenced by various
factors such as genetic make-up (heredity), ethnicity,
race.
Gender, nutrition and diet, exercise, sleep patterns, use
of tobacco.
Alcohol or other drugs, stress and stressful life events
Environmental toxins and socioeconomic status
HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT…….
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Cognitive development refers to the
acquisition of the ability to reason and
solve problems.
Cognition involves language,
imagination, thinking, reasoning, problem
solving, and memory.
HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT…….
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT.
Jean Piaget believed that children
develop steadily and gradually
throughout the varying stages and that
the experiences in one stage form the
foundations for movement to the next
stage.
COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT…
Piaget broke childhood cognitive development
into four stages.
The sensory motor stage, preoperational
stage, concrete operational stage and formal
operational.
All people pass through each stage before
starting the next one; no stage is skipped.
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT…

1.The sensory motor stage (Birth to 2 yrs )

Characteristics
A child’s knowledge is limited to his or her sensory
perceptions and motor activities.

Behaviors are limited to simple motor responses

caused by sensory stimuli.

Children utilize skills and abilities they were born with

(such as looking, sucking, grasping, and listening) to
learn about the environment.
COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT…
The most important aspects in the
sensory motor stage of development is
object permanence

Object permanence is a child's

understanding that objects continue to
exist even though they cannot be seen or
heard.
COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT…
The child becomes able to find objects
after they have been displaced, i.e even
if the objects have been taken out of the
child’s field of vision.
Children realize that the person or object
continues to exist even when unseen.
 COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT….
2. The preoperational stage ( 2 to 7 years )
A child learns to use language.
Children do not understand concrete logic.
They do not have reasoning ability.
A child is unable to take the point of view of other
people. They rely on their own views.(Egocentrism)

Children increase use of symbols when playing and

pretending. eg a child can use an object to represent
something else. (use a toy as a phone, papers as
money, a box as a car etc).
COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT…
Role playing Eg Children play the roles of
“nurse”, “doctor,” "mother," "father,“ etc
A child has no understanding of
conservation.
Eg Equal amounts of liquid are poured into
two identical containers, then the liquid in
one container is then poured into different
shaped containers; ( a tall and thin cup or a
short and wide cup).
COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT…
When children are asked which cup has
the most liquid?
Children may choose the cup that
appears fuller. Despite seeing that the
liquid amounts were equal.
Thus the child is using one dimension,
height, as the basis for his judgment of
another dimension, volume.
 COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT…
3. The concrete operational stage ( 7 – 11 years )
Children gain a better understanding of mental operations.
Begin to think logically about concrete events.
Have difficulty in understanding abstract or hypothetical
concepts.
They are fairly good at the use of inductive logic.
Inductive logic - the use of specific experience to a general
principle)/ Leading to generalizations.
Eg a child can generalize that whenever they go to hospital
there will be injection as a result of first time experience.
 COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT…
Have difficulty in using deductive logic, which
involves using a general principle to determine the
outcome of a specific event.
Seriation and classification as logical operations
are developed during this stage
Seriation - the ability to order objects according to
increasing or decreasing length, weight, or volume.

Classification - grouping objects on the basis of a

common characteristic.
 COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT…
The child becomes socio centric (as opposed to
egocentric) understand that others have their own
views on different aspects and that those views are
different from the child's own views.

Child's logic allows him or her to understand

reversibility , but only on a concrete level.( In the
preoperational stage a child does not yet possess the
structures necessary to reverse operations)
 COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT…
4. The formal operation stage.
The final stage of Piaget's theory of cognitive
development.
It begins at approximately age twelve and it lasts into
adulthood.
Deductive logic becomes important during the formal
operational stage.
Deductive logic is the ability to use a general principle
to determine a specific outcome. This type of thinking
involves hypothetical situations and is often required in
science and mathematics.
COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT…
The ability to think about abstract concepts
emerges during the formal operational stage.
Children can solve problems in a logical and
systematically way.
Children are able to plan quickly and
organized ways of solving problems.
They can use multiple ways of solving
problems at once.
HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT…….
PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
The theory of psychosocial development was
propounded by Erik Erikson, a German developmental
psychologist.

The main focus of Erikson's psychosocial stages is the

development of ego identity.

Ego identity is the conscious sense of self that is

developed through social interaction.
 PSYCHOSOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT….
According to Erikson, our ego identity is
constantly changing due to new experiences
and information we acquire in our daily
interactions with others.

Identity refers to all of the beliefs, ideals, and

values that help shape and guide a person's
behavior.
PSYCHOSOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT….
Erikson divided the process of
psychological and social development
into eight stages.
The individual faces a psychosocial
crisis which arises in each stage and
demands resolution in order to progress
satisfactorily.
 PSYCHOSOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT….
The stages ranges from infancy to old age, The conflicts
are:-
Trust versus mistrust,
Autonomy versus shame and doubt,
Initiative versus guilt,
Industry versus inferiority,
Identity versus role diffusion/confusion,
Intimacy versus isolation,
Generativity (creativity and productivity)—versus
stagnation,
Ego integrity versus despair.
 PSYCHOSOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT….
1. Basic Trust Versus Mistrust
This is the period of birth to 1 1/2 years.
The quality of the child's caregivers determines the
development of trust.

The child who is well – handled, nurtured, and loved,

develops trust and security and a basic optimism. Badly
handled children, become in secured and mistrustful.
 PSYCHOSOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT….
2. Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt (Will)
Erikson believes -The second psychosocial crisis,
occurs during early childhood, between(1 ½-3 yrs.)

The child emerges from this stage sure of himself,

developed his own control, and proud rather than
ashamed.
PSYCHOSOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT….
Children experiencing psychosocial crisis
experience stubbornness and negativism.

Erikson believed that achieving a balance

between autonomy, shame and doubt would
lead to will. That is, children can act with
intention, within reason and limits.
PSYCHOSOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT….
3. Initiative Versus Guilt (Purpose)
Erikson believes that this third psychosocial crisis occurs from
about 3½ to 7 years.
In this stage the child learns the following:-
(1) to imagine, to broaden his skills through different active plays.
(2) to cooperate with others
(3) to lead as well as to follow.
 PSYCHOSOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT….
Children who fail to acquire these skills are left with a
sense of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative.
As a result of guilty, they become;
(1) fearful (2) continues to depend on adults
(3) restricted in the development of play skills and in
imagination.

When an ideal balance of individual initiative and

willingness to work with others is achieved, the ego
 PSYCHOSOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT….
4. Industry Versus Inferiority (6-12 yrs)
(Competence)
Involve social interactions; where children begin to
develop a sense of competence in their
accomplishments and abilities.
Children who are encouraged and commended by
parents and teachers develop a feeling of
competence and belief in their skills.
Those who receive little or no encouragement from
parents, teachers, or peers will doubt their abilities to
be successful.
PSYCHOSOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT….
The child learns to master more formal skills of life:
(1) relating with peers according to rules
(2) mastering social studies, reading, arithmetic.
(3)self-discipline tend to increase.
A balance at this stage of psychosocial development leads to the
strength known as competence or a belief on ones own abilities
to handle the tasks set before him/her.
 PSYCHOSOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT….
5. Identity Versus Confusion
According to Erickson an adolescent is expected to answer satisfactorily
and happily the question
- “Who am I?”
A clear sexual identity – manhood or womanhood – is established.
Individuals who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement
through personal exploration will emerge from this stage with a strong
sense of self and a feeling of independence and control.
 PSYCHOSOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT….
The adolescent seeks leadership guidance
(someone to inspire him),
Successful adolescents gradually develop a
set of ideals (socially matching and desirable).
Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and
desires will feel insecure and confused about
themselves and the future.
PSYCHOSOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT….
6. Intimacy Versus Isolation (Love) - (Early adulthood )
According to Erikson people develop loving, sexual
relationships, close and committed relationships with
other people.
Those who are successful at this step will form
relationships that are committed and secure.

The successful young adult, can experience true

intimacy – the sort of intimacy that lead to a good
marriage or a genuine and enduring friendship.
PSYCHOSOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT….
Those with a poor sense of self tend to
have less committed relationships, fear
relationships with others and are more
likely to suffer emotional isolation,
loneliness, and depression.
Successful resolution of this stage is
identified by the ability to form lasting,
meaningful relationships with other
people.
 PSYCHOSOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT….
7. Generativity Versus Stagnation (Care)(Middle
adulthood)
In middle adulthood, the psychosocial crisis demands
generativity, both in the sense of marriage and
parenthood, and in the sense of working productively
and creatively.
People continue to build their lives, in areas such as
career and family.
Hence a sense of contribution to continuity of life.
 PSYCHOSOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT….
Those who fail to attain this stage successfully will feel
unproductive.

When psychosocial crisis is handled successfully in this

stage a person will be proud of his/her
accomplishments, watching children growing into
adults, and developing a sense of unity with a life
partner.
 PSYCHOSOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT….
8. Ego-identity vs. Despair (Late adulthood) (Wisdom)
This stage occurs during old age reflecting back on a
person’s life.
The seven psychosocial crisis is expected to be
successfully resolved.
The mature adult develops the peak of adjustment and
integrity.
Development of a self-concept is attained and the
person is happy.
Proud of what he created – his children, his work, or his
hobbies.
PSYCHOSOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT….
Those who are unsuccessful during this
stage will feel that their life has been
wasted and will experience many regrets.
The individual will be left with feelings of
bitterness and despair.
Regret over opportunities of life and feel
guilty.