Statistical Quality Control

Presented by:
Team: "Master minds"
Members: Nigasana Sharma Submitted to:
Simana Subedi Anup Upadhyaya
Susmita Bhushal Asst. Lecturer
Kushal Poudel Nagarik College
Prakriti Adhikari
B. Tech (Food) III year(2078)
Nagarik College, Gaindakot 2
Nawalpur
Contents
• Introduction
• Basic concepts on statistical terms
• Variables and Attributes
• Causes of variation
• Sources of variation
• Benefits/Importance of SQC
• Describing variation in the product and process
control
• Sampling Inspection
• Operating characteristic curve(OC curve)
Statistical Quality Control

Introduction
• Statistics is a group of methods used to collect, analyze, present,
and interpret data and to make decisions.
• From 1950s, the manufacturing industries have been benefited
from the tools of SQC that have helped to guide in decision-
making process.
• In general, SQC is a number of different techniques designed to
evaluate quality from a conformance view. These are the
techniques to describe variation in a process.
• SQC can be applied to both manufacturing and service processes.
• Statistical quality control is the planned collection of data and
use of statistical tool to identify variation and remove defect. SQC
entails control of process and product.
Statistical Quality Control

Basic concepts on statistical terms

• Statistical analysis involves the process of
collecting and analyzing data and than
summarizing the data into a numerical form.
• Statistics is the science of
variation ,randomness and chance.
• It is essential for the quantitative study of
variation and analysis and interpretations of
data from experiments that are subjected to
variation.
Statistical Quality Control

Variables and Attributes

 The quality characteristics that are quantifiable , measurable , expressed
on a numerical scale are called variables. Eg .Sex , age ,height , weight etc .
 The value of variable for an element is called an observations or
measurements.
 Variables comes in two varieties and they are dependent and
independent variables.
 The outcome of interest which should change in response to some
characteristic or intervention is dependent variables.
 Whereas independent variables are the characteristic or intervention
what is being manipulated.
• A quality characteristics which cannot be measured on a numerical scale
but only either on nominal scale or on ordinal scale is said to be an
attribute. Eg . Color, tall, short etc.
Statistical Quality Control

Causes of variation

1.Chance or common causes :

 Common causes are the normal, expected variances that occur. Common causes are
predictable and are not considered unusual.
 On a control chart, common causes of variance would be indicated by the random
points within the control limits. Common causes of variance are also known as
"random" causes. Example of chance causes:
a. Inappropriate procedures.
b. Poor design.
c. Poor maintenance of machines.
d. Lack of clearly defined standard operating procedures.
e. Poor working conditions e.g. lighting, noise, dirt,temperature, ventilation
f. Machines not suited to the job.
g. Insufficient training
h. Measurement error.
i. Normal wear and tare
Statistical Quality Control

Assignable or special causes

 Special causes of variance are those causes that are not predictable or inherent
in a system. Special causes are usually related to some type of defect.
 On a control chart, special causes are represented by points beyond the control
limits or as non-random points within the control limits.
 The assignable/preventable causes of variation can be identified and
eliminated and are to be discovered in a production process before it goes
wrong. Some of the imp factors of the assignable causes of variation are
substandard or defective raw material, new techniques or operation, negligence
of the operators, improper handling of machines, unskilled manpower and so
on. Examples of special causes:
a. Operator absent
b. Operator falls asleep
c. Machine malfunction
d. Poor batch of raw material
e. Power surges
Statistical Quality Control

Sources of variation
• We already discussed the causes of variations. These causes are the results of the
sources like "4Ms"(methods, manpower, materials and machinery) or the
"4Ps"(policies, procedures, people and plant). General source of variation are as
follows: Raw materials, machinery or equipment or tooling, work method or process,
work force-new people, trained different, etc. measurement method and
environment.
a. Machines: Machines extend the capability of personnel who depend on them to
achieve the results required. If we neglect the machines and we reduce our
capability which will adversely affect results. Properly operated machines that are
kept in proper conditions will reduce the variation and should be able to produce the
product on a consistent basis. To reduce or eliminate the variations there should be
regular routine maintenance and preventive maintenance tasks.
b. Man: Qualified, trained, experienced, skillful and knowledgeable staffs only can
perform the assigned work properly with reduction of variation and cost. They must
be neat, regular, creative, dynamic, responsive and co-operative as well. Skilled and
vigorous personnel will give superior competence because of the better quality
production through the application of skill; will reduce production cost and waste.
Statistical Quality Control

Contd…….
c. Material: Quality and correct material should be available for the
process. In case of more than one supplier, quality must not vary.
They must meet the standards and specifications. Types of
material problems that could exist must be identified. Supplies of
good quality material will result in smoothing processing,
reducing the waste, increasing the output, better emergence of
finished product and reduces variations.
d. Methods: Current, rapid, simple, robust accurate and standard
methods must be used. Methods used must be validated. The
specific procedures used to determine the quality of any product
must be standardize. Random error(chance) and systemic
error(bias) must be eliminated or reduced. Calibrations of the
instruments are necessary.
Statistical Quality Control

Benefits/Importance of SQC
• Detection and
• Correction of production troubles.
• Improvement in product quality and design.
• Reduction in operating costs and loses.
• Maintenance of operating efficiency.
• Evaluation of scientific tolerances.
• Improvement in employee morale.
• Reduction of spoilage and rework.
• Removing production blockage.
• Saving environmental ruining.
• Saving access use of material.
• Greater customer satisfaction.
• Less consumption of energy.
• Reduction in inspection.
• Quality consciousness.
• Reduction in scarpe.
Statistical Quality Control

Describing variation in the product and process control

• The variation in the samples or in any items that are to be observed has a
fundamental significance; without which the statistical method has no proper
implication. In product and process quality system, the variations in the system
are observed in different ways. The following are the common methods of
describing the variation in the process and product quality. These methods are
considered as the seven basic tools for continuous quality improvement. These
tools were focused on the laymen and workers so that they could easily define
the process either it is in control or not.
a. Frequency distribution and Check sheets
b. Pareto diagram
c. Process flow chart
d. Cause and effect diagram(Fish bone diagram)
e. Histograms
f. Scatter plots(Correlation diagram, Box plot and probability plots)
g. Control charts
Statistical Quality Control

Frequency distribution and Check sheets

 A simple method of describing the pattern of variability or the configuration of the

items or events to be observed in the data(sampled or surveyed),by arranging the data
by magnitude along with the number of occurrence is called the frequency distribution.
 In process and product or service system, we can record the observations by taking
samples from population, arranging them in order corresponding to their number of
occurrences, considering the general level and amount of variation made with the help
of frequency distribution.
 Check sheets are manual graphical counting mechanism for enumerating the results of
sampling.
 Check sheets facilitate systematic record keeping(or data collection) and analysis. In
check sheets, observations are recorded as they happen, which reveals the pattern or
trends of the data.
Benefits
1.Collect data in a systematic and organized manner.
2.To determine source of problem.
3.To facilitate classification of data.
Statistical Quality Control

Pareto analysis and Pareto diagram

 Vilfredo Pareto(1848-1923), economist of Italy, formulated the principle related to the
management of the quality cost is known as Pareto Principle. '
 Cost reduction through identification of improvement opportunities' is the principal objective
of this principle.
 In manufacturing or service organization, the problem areas or defect types follow a similar
distribution. Of all the problems that occur only a few are quite frequent; the others seldom
occur. Thus, in grouping these problems areas in two categories, they are labeled as the vital
few and the trivial many.
 The pareto principle supports that 80% problems(nonconformities or defects) are created by
20% of the causes.
 Pareto analysis is the method of selecting the characteristics, which requires on maintaining
control charts, giving higher priority to those, which cause more nonconforming items, and
that increase costs.
 The main objective of pareto analysis is to select the vital few from among the trivial many.
 The pareto chart is simply a frequency distribution or simply a bar-chart of attribute data
arranged by category.
 The pareto chart does not automatically identify the most important defects, but rather only
those that occur most frequently.
Fig: A general representation of
pareto diagram
Statistical Quality Control

Process flow chart

 A flowchart is a diagram that uses graphic symbols to depict the nature and
flow of the steps in a process. Another name for this tool is "flow diagram".
 Flow chart shows the sequence of events in a process. They are used for
manufacturing and service operations.
 Flow charts are often used to diagram operational procedures to simplify the
system.
 They can identify blockages, unneeded steps and non- value added steps.
Benefits of using Flowcharts
1. Identify process improvements.
2.Understand the process.
3. Shows duplicated effort and other non-value added activities.
4. Clarify working relationships between people and organization.
Symbols used in flowchart

Decisi
Reovals, on
Start / end box
Terminator

To connect the process Diamond /Rhombus

Processing
steps
Rectangle

Represented by a rectangle with a

document
wavy base
Statistical Quality Control

Cause and effect diagram(Fish bone diagram)

 Graphical representation of potential causes of a

problem.
 It is also called Ishikawa diagram because it was
developed by Japanese professor Kaoru Ishikawa(1960s).
 It is also called fishbone diagram because the diagram
looks like fish bone.
 Main purpose is to identify the potential causes of the
problem.
 It is not applicable for identifying root causes, we only
identify the potential causes, after validating these causes
we reach to root causes.
Statistical Quality Control

How is it done?
Machine
Ans . Mother nature Man

Effect

Measurement Method Material

Generally in fish bone diagram, at first brainstorming is done and the cause that comes out are
divided into M's and by validating those causes root cause are identified.
Statistical Quality Control

Benefits
1. Helps in identifying the potential causes.
2. Fosters team work.
3. Common understanding of factors causing
the problem.
4. Follows brainstorming relationship.
Statistical Quality Control

Histogram
 It is the graphical representation of data such that the
characteristic is categorized in unbroken(continuous) class
intervals or cells.
 Helps in data collection and its distribution.
 In frequency histogram, the vertical axis usually represents
the number of observation in each class and the horizontal
axis the continuous class intervals.
 Histogram could help in identifying process capability
relative to customer requirements.
 The histogram can be helpful in estimating process
capability.
Statistical Quality Control

Benefits of histogram
• Summarize large data sets graphically.
• Compare measurements to specifications.
• Communicate information to the team
• Assist in decision making.
By providing a visual symmetry of the data,
histograms reveal
1.Whether the process is centered on a target reveal.
2. The degree of deviation in data and
3. Whether the data meet specifications.
Fig: A general representation of histogram
Statistical Quality Control

Scatter diagram
 The scatter diagram is useful plot for identifying a potential relationship between
two variables.
 A collection of sets of data which attempt to relate a potential cause(X-axis) are
plotted against with an effect(Y-axis).
 If two variables are move together, the distribution is said to be bivariate
distribution.
 Its only a graphical representation of relationship.
 Correlation analysis: To get number to understand strength of relationship.
 Regression analysis: To get a mathematical model.
 If the value of one variable appears to decrease with an increase in the value of
the other a negative correlation is said to be exist.
 In product analysis, the use of scatter diagram can be made to compare product
self-life with active ingredient content, in managerial field clerical errors with
overtime hours, like so on.
Fig: A general representation of scatter diagram
Fig: A general representation of
scatter diagram
Statistical Quality Control

Control charts
 A control chart is mainly used to evaluate process stability.
 Stability: How my process is behaving over a period of time.
 It is a two-dimensional graph.
 The chart contains three parallel lines, the centre line lies on the
average value of quality characteristics, and the other two ones
are the upper control limit(UCL) and the lower control
limit(LCL).
 Measures are taken over time.
 If values of quality characteristics lie within the two limits ,
generally, it is to be said that the process is stable. Otherwise , if
some values lie beyond control limits, that would be an
indication for an underlying potential problem.
Statistical Quality Control

Benefits of control charts in SPC

 When to make corrective action(when
something may be wrong so that corrective
action may be taken).
 Predict process out of control.
 Type of remedial action needed.
 When to leave a process alone.
 Process capability.
 Possible means of quality improvement.
Statistical Quality Control

Some rules for identifying an out of control

process
 A process is assumed to be out of control if a single point
plots outside the control limits.
 If two of the consecutive points fall outside the 2sigma
warning limits on the same side of the central line.
 If four out of five consecutive points fall beyond the 1sigma
limit on the same side of the control line.
 If nine or more consecutive points fall one side of the
centre line.
 If there is a run of six or more consecutive points steadily
increasing or decreasing.
 (The special cause should be identified)
Statistical Quality Control

Control chart patterns and corrective actions

 Natural patterns: Demonstrates stable pattern, considered as the stable
system of common causes.
 Sudden shift in the level: It occurs intentional point( new operator, new
equipment, new vendor etc.)
 Gradual shifts in the level: It is occurred when a process parameter
changes gradually over a period of time(new operator, quality of new
material)
 Trending pattern: Represent change that steadily increase or
decrease(occurs due to due to tool wear, gradual change in temperature)
 Cyclic pattern: This pattern is a repetitive periodic behavior in system( due
to rotation of operator, seasonal variation etc)
 Wild pattern: It is of two types; freaks and bunches
Freaks: due to power failure
Bunches: due to other reason
Statistical Quality Control

Sampling Inspection
 The other method of SQC is sampling inspection or
acceptance sampling which is employed to ensure the
product or service quality as the requirement specified by
the designer or to meet the consumer's requirements.
 Acceptance sampling is a form of testing that involves
taking random samples of "lots" or batches of finished
products and measuring them against predetermined
standards.
 A lot or batches of items can be inspected in several ways,
including the use of single, double or sequential sampling.
Statistical Quality Control

Single sampling
 One random sample is drawn from each lot.
 Every item in the sample is inspected and
classified as "good" or "defective".
 If any samples contains more than a specified
number of defectives(c) the lot is rejected.
 If the defect is less than 3% the lot is accepted.
 If the defect exceeds 3% the lot is rejected.
Statistical Quality Control

Take a randomized
sample of size n from
the lot N

The single sampling

Inspect all items in the procedure
sample
Defectives found= d

Yes
d<a ? Accept lot

No

Reject lot

Return lot to Do 100%

supplier inspection
Statistical Quality Control

Double sampling
 Allows the opportunity to take a second sample if the results of initial
sample are inconclusive.
 Two values are specified for the number of defective items
A lower level,c1
An upper level,c2
 If the number of defectives in the first sample is
d1< c1 the lot is accepted and sampling is terminated.
d2> c2 the lot is rejected and sample is terminated.
Between c1 and c2 a second sample is collected.
 The number of defectives in both samples(d1 +d2) is compared to a
third value c3.
If the combined number of defectives doesn't exceed this value, the lot
is accepted; otherwise it is rejected.
Statistical Quality Control

Operating characteristic curve (OC curve)

 It is the graph between fraction defective in the lot against probability of
acceptance in the lot.
 Generally tells us about the risk(Producer and Consumer risk).
 It is an important measure of the performance of an acceptance sampling plan.
 It shows the probability that a lot submitted with a certain fraction defective will be
either accepted or rejected.
Acceptance quality level(AQL): It is a fraction defective that can be tolerated by
customer. E.g. 2% defected can be accepted or tolerated.
Rejectable quality level(RQL): It is the upper limit of percentage defect which
consumer is willing to accept the lot as a good.
 As the sample size goes on increasing it is more shifted towards ideal curve which
results in the decreasing of probability of risk and error is totally minimized.
 Producer risk is denoted by alpha whereas consumer risk is denoted by beta.
 Type I error: Hypothesis is true but still we reject it- Producer risk
 Type II error: Hypothesis is false but still we accept it- Consumer risk
Statistical Quality Control