Chapter 2

Energy, Energy Transfer, and General Energy Analysis

Dr. Abduljalil Al-Abidi Thermodynamics PET121

 Forms of Energy
Energy can exist in numerous forms such as thermal, mechanical, kinetic, potential,
electric, magnetic, chemical, and nuclear, and their sum constitutes the total energy E of
a system (kJ). The total energy of a system on a unit mass basis is denoted by e and is
expressed as
𝑒=
𝐸
𝑚
=
𝑘𝐽
𝑘𝑔 ( )
Total energy

Macroscopic, With respect to Microscopic, related to the molecular

out references structure of a system

Kinetic energy , potential Internal energy

Dr. Abduljalil Al-Abidi Thermodynamics PET121

Internal energy ( U ) : The portion of the internal energy of a system
associated with the kinetic energies of the molecules is called the
sensible energy. Sensible heat is heat exchanged by a body that changes
the temperature, and some macroscopic variables of the body.

The internal energy associated with the phase of a system is called the
latent energy. Latent energy is required to change matter from one
phase to other.

Thermal energy is the sensible and latent forms of internal energy, and
it is referred to as heat in daily life..

Dr. Abduljalil Al-Abidi Thermodynamics PET121

 Kinetic Energy
Kinetic Energy ( KE): Energy due to the movement of an object with
mass (m). Proportional to the square of the of the speed.

or, on a unit mass basis

where V denotes the velocity of the system relative to some fixed

reference frame. V = Velocity or speed (m s-1)

Dr. Abduljalil Al-Abidi Thermodynamics PET121

 A doubling of the wind speed would increase
the energy of the wind by a factor of 4!

Dr. Abduljalil Al-Abidi Thermodynamics PET121

 Potential energy
Potential Energy ( PE): The energy that a system possesses as a result
of its elevation in a gravitational field
mgz
or, on a unit mass basis
gz
where g is the gravitational acceleration and z is the elevation of the
center of gravity of a system relative to some arbitrarily selected
reference level

Dr. Abduljalil Al-Abidi Thermodynamics PET121

In the absence of such effects, the total energy of a system consists of the
kinetic, potential, and internal energies and is expressed as
1 2
𝐸=𝑈 + 𝑚 𝑣 +𝑚𝑔𝑧 ( 𝑘𝐽 )
2

or, on a unit mass basis

Most closed systems remain stationary during a process and thus

experience no change in their kinetic and potential energies. The change
in the total energy ∆E the system is identical to the change in its internal
energy ∆U

Dr. Abduljalil Al-Abidi Thermodynamics PET121

Control volumes ( open system) typically involve fluid flow for long periods of time,
and it is convenient to express the energy flow associated with a fluid stream in the rate
form This is done by incorporating the mass flow rate
which is the amount of mass flowing
through a cross section per unit time.
It is related to the volume flow rate .
, which is the volume of a fluid flowing
through a cross section per unit time, by
Mass and energy flow rates associated
Mass flow rate: ˙
𝑚=𝜌 𝑉˙ =𝜌 𝐴𝑐 𝑉 𝑎𝑣𝑔 with the flow of steam in a pipe of inner
diameter D with an average velocity of
Here r is the fluid density, Ac is the cross Vavg.
sectional area of flow, and Vavg is the average
flow velocity normal to Ac. The dot over a
symbol is used to indicate time rate throughout
the book
Energy flow rate: ˙ 𝑚
𝐸= ˙ 𝑒 ( 𝑘𝑊 ) 𝑂𝑅
𝑘𝐽
𝑠 ( )
Dr. Abduljalil Al-Abidi Thermodynamics PET121
Mechanical Energy
The mechanical energy can be defined as the form of energy that can be
converted to mechanical work completely and directly by an ideal
mechanical device such as an ideal turbine. Kinetic and potential
energies are the familiar forms of mechanical energy.
Thermal energy is not mechanical energy, however, since it cannot be
converted to work directly and completely (the second law of
thermodynamics).
A pump transfers mechanical energy to a fluid by raising its pressure,
and a turbine extracts mechanical energy from a fluid by dropping its
pressure, Therefore, the mechanical energy of a flowing fluid can be
expressed on a unit mass basis as

Dr. Abduljalil Al-Abidi Thermodynamics PET121

where P/ρ is the flow energy, V2/2 is the kinetic energy, and gz is the
potential energy of the fluid, all per unit mass. It can also be expressed in
rate form as
˙
𝐸𝑚𝑒𝑐 h =𝑚
˙ 𝑒=𝑚 (
𝑃 𝑣2
+ +𝑔𝑧
𝜌 2 )
where is the mass flow rate of the fluid. Then the mechanical energy
change of a fluid during incompressible (ρ = constant) flow becomes
˙ 2
( )( )
2
𝑃2− 𝑃1 𝑣2 − 𝑣1 𝑘𝐽
∆ 𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑐 h= + +𝑔 ( 𝑧 2 − 𝑧 1)
𝜌 2 𝑘𝑔
˙ 2
( ))
2
𝑃 2− 𝑃1 𝑣2 − 𝑣1
∆ 𝐸=¿ 𝑚˙
˙ ∆ 𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑐 h =𝑚
˙ + (
+𝑔 𝑧 2 − 𝑧 1 ( 𝑘𝑊 ) ¿
𝜌 2

Dr. Abduljalil Al-Abidi Thermodynamics PET121

 ENERGY TRANSFER BY HEAT
Energy can cross the boundary of a closed
system in two distinct forms: heat and
work
Heat is defined as the form of energy that
is transferred between two systems (or a
system and its surroundings) by virtue of a
temperature
Adiabatic process is a process during
which there is no heat transfer. There are
two ways that a process can be adiabatic:
Either the system is well insulated, or both
the system and the surroundings are at
the same temperature

Dr. Abduljalil Al-Abidi Thermodynamics PET121

As a form of energy, heat has energy units, kJ. The amount of heat
transferred during the process between two states (states 1 and 2) is
denoted by Q12, or just Q. Heat transfer per unit mass of a system is
denoted q and is determined from

The net rate of heat transfer is denoted by In principle, the amount of

energy transfer by heat during a period of time can be found by
integrating from time t1 to time t2

Dr. Abduljalil Al-Abidi Thermodynamics PET121

 ENERGY TRANSFER BY WORK
Work is an energy interaction between a system and its surroundings.
Energy can cross the boundary of a closed system in the form of heat or
work. Work is the energy transfer associated with a force acting through
a distance.
Work is also a form of energy transferred like heat and, therefore, has
energy units such as kJ. The work done during a process between states 1
and 2 is denoted by W12, or simply W. The work done per unit mass of a
system is denoted by w and is expressed as

The work done per unit time is called power and is denoted W . The unit
of power is kJ/s, or kW.

Dr. Abduljalil Al-Abidi Thermodynamics PET121

 Heat & Work Classical Sign Convention
Sign Convention :
Heat Transfer TO a System : + ve
Heat Transfer FROM a System : - ve
Work done BY a System : + ve
Work done ON a System : - ve

Dr. Abduljalil Al-Abidi Thermodynamics PET121

Heat and work are energy transfer mechanisms between a system and its
surroundings, which can be classified as inexact properties depended on
the process path.
Path functions have inexact differentials
designated by the symbol d. Therefore, a
differential amount of heat or work is represented
by dQ or dW, respectively, instead of dQ or dW.
Properties, however, are point functions
(i.e., they depend on the state only, and not on how
a system reaches that state), and they have exact
differentials designated by the symbol d

Properties are point functions; but

heat and work are path functions (their
magnitudes depend on the path
followed).
The integral of W is not W2 - W 1

Dr. Abduljalil Al-Abidi Thermodynamics PET121

Mechanical Forms of Work
Work is energy expended by a force acting through a distance. Thermodynamic work
is defined as energy in transition across the system boundary and is done by a
system if the sole effect external to the boundaries could have been the raising of a
weight.

Mathematically, the differential of work is expressed as

 
 W  F  d s  F ds cos
here  is the angle between the force vector and the displacement vector.
As with the heat transfer, the Greek symbol  means that work is a path-dependent
function and has an inexact differential. If the angle between the force and the
displacement is zero, the work done between two states is
2 2
W12   W   Fds
1 1

Dr. Abduljalil Al-Abidi Thermodynamics PET121

2–8 Consider a river flowing toward a lake at an average velocity of 3 m/s at a rate of
500 m3/s at a location 90 m above the lake surface. Determine the total mechanical
energy of the river water per unit mass and the power generation potential of the
entire river at that location.

2–10 At a certain location, wind is blowing steadily at 10 m/s. Determine the

mechanical energy of air per unit mass and the power generation potential of a wind
turbine with 60-m-diameter blades at that location. Take the air density to be 1.25
kg/m3.

Problem 2-12, 2-13

Dr. Abduljalil Al-Abidi Thermodynamics PET121

 First Law of Thermodynamics
Also known as Law of Conservation of Energy

Important due to its ability to provide a sound basis to study between different
forms of Energy and their interactions.
STATEMENT :
m = 2 kg PE = 10 kJ
KE = 0
Energy can neither be created nor
destroyed during a process; but can be
Δz
only converted from one form to another.

PE = 7 kJ
KE = 3 kJ
m g Δz = ½ m ( v22 – v12 )

Dr. Abduljalil Al-Abidi Thermodynamics PET121

 Energy Balance
This forms the basis for Heat Balance / Energy Balance.

Net change ( increase / decrease ) in the total Energy of the System during a Process
= Difference between Total Energy entering and Total Energy leaving the System
during that Process.

Total Energy _ Total Energy = Change in Total Energy

entering the System leaving the System of the System

( EIN ) ( EOUT ) ( ΔE )

Dr. Abduljalil Al-Abidi Thermodynamics PET121

where the subscripts “in” and “out” denote quantities that enter and leave
the system, respectively. The direction of any energy transfer is
described by the subscripts “in” and “out.”

The heat transfer Q is zero for adiabatic systems, the work transfer W is
zero for systems that involve no work interactions, and the energy
transport with mass Emass is zero for systems that involve no mass flow
across their boundaries (i.e., closed systems).

Dr. Abduljalil Al-Abidi Thermodynamics PET121

 Energy Balance for Closed System

Closed 
Heat
System V
Work
z

Reference Plane, z = 0

or
Ein  Eout  E system
21
Dr. Abduljalil Al-Abidi Thermodynamics PET121
Dr. Abduljalil Al-Abidi Thermodynamics PET121
Energy Change of a System, Esystem

Dr. Abduljalil Al-Abidi Thermodynamics PET121

  The change in stored energy for the system is
E  U  KE  PE
 If potential and kinetic energies ignored

∆ E=∆ U
Mechanisms of Energy Transfer, Ein and Eout
Energy can be transferred to or from a system in three forms: heat, work, and mass
flow

Dr. Abduljalil Al-Abidi Thermodynamics PET121

For a closed system undergoing a cycle, the
initial and final states are identical, and thus
Esystem E2 - E1 = 0. Then the energy balance
for a cycle simplifies to Ein - Eout = 0 or Ein
= Eout. Noting that a closed system does not
involve any mass flow across its
boundaries, the energy balance for a cycle
can be expressed in terms of heat and work
interactions as

That is, the net work output during a cycle is equal to net heat input

Dr. Abduljalil Al-Abidi Thermodynamics PET121

2–37 Water is being heated in a closed pan on top of a
range while being stirred by a paddle wheel. During the
process, 30 kJ of heat is transferred to the water, and 5 kJ
of heat is lost to the surrounding air. The paddle-wheel
work amounts to 500 N · m. Determine the final energy of
the system if its initial energy is 10 kJ. Answer: 35.5 kJ

2–46 A water pump that consumes 2 kW of electric power

when operating is claimed to take in water from a lake and
pump it to a pool whose free surface is 30 m above the free
surface of the lake at a rate of 50 L/s. Determine if this claim
is reasonable

Dr. Abduljalil Al-Abidi Thermodynamics PET121