Prepared by:

Arnolfo Jade Ryan N. Sison

Mike L. Barrios
Michel Jay A. Espulgar
 Presenters

Sison, A.J.R. Barrios, M. Espulgar, M.J.

BSED-Science 3 BSED-Science 3 BSED-Science 3
T1
Prokaryotic cells such as bacterial cell have a nucleoid
(nuclear body) rather than an enveloped nucleus and lack
membrane-bound cytoplasmic organelles.
The plasma membrane in prokaryotes performs many of
the functions carried out by membranous organelles in
eukaryotes.
Most prokaryotes have a peptidoglycan cell wall and
many have a polysaccharide capsule. The cell wall acts
as an extra layer of protection, helps the cell maintain its
shape, and prevents dehydration.
The capsule enables the cell to attach to surfaces in its
environment. Some prokaryotes have flagella, pili, or
fimbriae.
Flagella are used for locomotion. Pili are used to
exchange genetic material during a type of reproduction
called conjugation. Fimbriae are used by bacteria to
attach to a host cell.
1. Capsule- Some species of bacteria have a third protective
covering, a capsule made up of polysaccharides (complex
carbohydrates). Capsules play a number of roles, but the most
important are to keep the bacterium from drying out and to protect it
from phagocytosis (engulfing) by larger microorganisms.
The capsule is a major virulence factor in the major disease-causing
bacteria, such as Escherichia coli and Streptococcus pneumoniae.
Non-encapsulated mutants of these organisms are avirulent, i.e. they
don't cause disease.
Functions
Attachment to surfaces; protection against phagocytic engulfment,
occasionally killing or digestion; reserve of nutrients or protection
against desiccation. Capsules can protect a bacterial cell from
ingestion and destruction by white blood cells (phagocytosis).
2. Cell Envelope- The cell envelope is made up of two to three
layers which is the interior cytoplasmic membrane, the cell wall,
and in some species of bacteria an outer capsule. The bacteria cell
envelope is a complex multilayered structure that serves to protect
these organisms from their unpredictable and often hostile
environment.
Functions
The bacteria cell envelope is a complex multilayered structure that
serves to protect these organisms from their unpredictable and often
hostile environment.
3. Cell Wall- Each bacterium is enclosed by a rigid cell wall
composed of peptidoglycan (polymer consisting of sugars and
amino acids). The wall gives the cell its shape and surrounds the
cytoplasmic membrane, protecting it from the environment. Cell
wall composition varies widely amongst bacteria and is one of the
most important factors in bacterial species analysis and
differentiation.
a. Gram-positive Bacterial Cell
The cell wall is of a gram-positive bacteria is thick with a size of
(20–80 nm), homogeneous sheath of peptidoglycan. It contains
polysaccharides such as teichoic acid and lipoteichoic acid.
b. Gram-negative Bacterial Cell
The cell wall of a gram-negative bacterial cell is a single, thin (1-3
nm) sheet of peptidoglycan. Although it acts as a somewhat rigid
protective structure. The gram-negative bacteria do not retain crystal
violet but are able to retain a counterstain, commonly safranin,
which is added after the crystal violet.
Functions
The cell wall has multiple functions during bacterial growth,
including maintaining bacterial cell integrity and shape as well as
resisting internal turgor pressure. The bacterial cell wall is a
complex, mesh-like structure that in most bacteria is essential for
maintenance of cell shape and structural integrity.
4. Cytoplasm- It is a gel-like matrix composed of water, enzymes,
nutrients, wastes, and gases and contains cell structures such as
ribosomes, a chromosome, and plasmids. One of those components,
plasmids, are small, extrachromosomal genetic structures carried by
many strains of bacteria.
Like the chromosome, plasmids are made of a circular piece of
DNA. Unlike the chromosome, they are not involved in
reproduction. Plasmids are passed on to other bacteria through two
means. For most plasmid types, copies in the cytoplasm are passed
on to daughter cells during binary fission.
Functions
The cytoplasm, or protoplasm, of bacterial cells is where the
functions for cell growth, metabolism, and replication are carried
out.
5. Cytoplasmic Membrane- A layer of phospholipids and proteins,
called the cytoplasmic membrane, encloses the interior of the
bacterium, regulating the flow of materials in and out of the cell.
This is a structural trait bacteria share with all other living cells; a
barrier that allows them to selectively interact with their
environment. The cytoplasmic membrane is semipermeable and
determines what molecules enter and leave the bacterial cell.
Functions
The plasma membrane, also called the cytoplasmic membrane, is the
most dynamic structure of a prokaryotic cell. Its main function is as
a selective permeability barrier that regulates the passage of
substances into and out of the cell.
6. Flagella- The flagella of motile bacteria differ in structure from
eukaryotic flagella. They can be found at either or both ends of a
bacterium or all over its surface. A basal body anchored in the
plasma membrane and cell wall gives rise to a cylindrical protein
filament. The flagellum moves by whirling about its long axis. The
number and arrangement of flagella on the cell are diagnostically
useful.
Functions
Swimming movement. The overall function of bacterial flagella is to
keep bacteria in an optimum environment via taxis. A single
flagellum, usually at one pole. A single flagellum at both ends of the
organism.
7. Nucleoid- The nucleoid is a region of cytoplasm where the
chromosomal DNA is located. It is not a membrane bound nucleus,
but simply an area of the cytoplasm where the strands of DNA are
found. Most bacteria have a single, circular chromosome that is
responsible for replication, although a few species do have two or
more. Smaller circular auxiliary DNA strands, called plasmids, are
also found in the cytoplasm.
Functions
The nucleoid is essential for controlling the activity of the cell and
reproduction. It is where transcription and replication of DNA take
place.
8. Pili (Fimbriae)- Pili are slender, hairlike, proteinaceous
appendages on the surface of many (particularly Gram-negative)
bacteria. They are important in adhesion to host surfaces. These
outgrowths assist the bacteria in attaching to other cells and
surfaces, such as teeth, intestines, and rocks. Without pili, many
disease-causing bacteria lose their ability to infect because they're
unable to attach to host tissue.
Functions
Stabilizes mating bacteria during DNA transfer by conjugation. Pili
or fimbriae are protein structures that extend from the bacterial cell
envelope for a distance up to 2 μm. They function to attach the cells
to surfaces.
9. Ribosomes- Ribosomes are microscopic "factories" found in all
cells, including bacteria. They translate the genetic code from the
molecular language of nucleic acid to that of amino acids (the
building blocks of proteins). Proteins are the molecules that perform
all the functions of cells and living organisms. Bacterial ribosomes
are similar to those of eukaryotes, but are smaller and have a
slightly different composition and molecular structure.
Bacterial ribosomes are never bound to other organelles as they
sometimes are (bound to the endoplasmic reticulum) in eukaryotes,
but are free-standing structures distributed throughout the
cytoplasm. There are sufficient differences between bacterial
ribosomes and eukaryotic ribosomes that some antibiotics will
inhibit the functioning of bacterial ribosomes, but not a eukaryote's,
thus killing bacteria but not the eukaryotic organisms they are
Functions
Sites of translation (protein synthesis). Bacterial ribosomes are
composed of two subunits with densities of 50S and 30S, as
opposed to 60S and 40S in eukaryotic cells. Ribosomes function as
a workbench for protein synthesis whereby they receive and
translate genetic instructions for the formation of specific proteins.
 T3

Presented by: Mike L. Barrios

 Cell Size
At 0.1 to 5.0 μm in diameter, prokaryotic cells
are significantly smaller than eukaryotic cells,
which have diameters ranging from 10 to 100
μm. The small size of prokaryotes allows ions
and organic molecules that enter them to
quickly diffuse to other parts of the cell.
 Small size, in general, is necessary for all
cells, whether prokaryotic or eukaryotic.
1. Consider the area and volume of a typical
cell. Not all cells are spherical in shape,
but most tend to approximate a sphere.
2. Formula for the surface area of a sphere is
4πr2, while the formula for its volume is
4/3πr3.
 Therefore, as a cell increases in size, its
surface area-to-volume ratio decreases. This
same principle would apply if the cell had the
shape of a cube. If the cell grows too large, the
plasma membrane will not have sufficient
surface area to support the rate of diffusion
required for the increased volume.
Cell Surface Size: Notice that as
a cell increases in size, its
surface area-to-volume ratio
decreases. When there is
insufficient surface area to
support a cell’s increasing
volume, a cell will either divide
or die. The cell on the left has a
volume of 1 mm3 and a surface
area of 6 mm2, with a surface
area-to-volume ratio of 6 to 1,
whereas the cell on the right has
a volume of 8 mm3 and a
surface area of 24 mm2, with a
surface area-to-volume ratio of 3
to 1.
1. Cocci (or coccus for a single
cell) are round cells, sometimes
slightly flattened when they are
adjacent to one another.
1. Cocci (or coccus for a single
cell) are round cells, sometimes
slightly flattened when they are
adjacent to one another.
2. Bacilli (or bacillus for a
single cell) are rod-shaped
bacteria.
1. Cocci (or coccus for a single
cell) are round cells, sometimes
slightly flattened when they are
adjacent to one another.
2. Bacilli (or bacillus for a
single cell) are rod-shaped
bacteria.
3. Spirilla (or spirillum for a
single cell) are curved bacteria
which can range from a gently
curved shape to a corkscrew-like
spiral. Many spirilla are rigid
and capable of movement. A
special group of spirilla known
as spirochetes are long, slender,
and flexible.
Arrangement of Cocci
Cocci bacteria can exist singly, in pairs (as diplococci), in
groups of four (as tetrads), in chains (as streptococci), in
clusters (as stapylococci), or in cubes consisting of eight cells
(as sarcinae). Cocci may be oval, elongated, or flattened on
one side. Cocci may remain attached after cell division. The
cell division machinery is responsible for the synthesis of
septal peptidoglycan and thus the growth of the cell wall of
bacteria.
The Gram-positive cocci are the leading pathogens of humans.
It is estimated that they produce at least a third of all the
bacterial infections of humans, including strep throat,
pneumonia, otitis media, meningitis, food poisoning, various
skin diseases and severe types of septic shock.
1. Diplococci
The cocci are arranged in pairs.
Examples:
Streptococcus pneumoniae, Moraxella
catarrhalis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, etc.
2. Streptococci
The cocci are arranged in chains, as the cells
divide in one plane. A bacterium of a genus that
includes the agents of souring of milk and dental
decay, and hemolytic pathogens causing various
infections such as scarlet fever and pneumonia.
Examples: Streptococcus pyogenes, Streptococcus
agalactiae
3. Tetrads
The cocci are form a square of four bacteria
arranged in packets of four cells, as the cells
divide in two plains.
Examples: Aerococcus, Pediococcus and
Tetragenococcus
4. Sarcinae
The cocci are arranged in a cuboidal manner, as
the cells are formed by regular cell divisions in
three planes. Cocci that divide in three planes and
remain in groups cube like groups of eight.
Examples: Sarcina ventriculi, Sarcina ureae, etc.
5. Staphylococci
The cocci are arranged in grape-like clusters
formed by irregular cell divisions in three plains.
Examples: Staphylococcus aureus
Arrangements of Baccili
The cylindrical or rod-shaped bacteria are called
‘bacillus’ (plural: bacilli). Bacilli all divide in one
plane producing a diplobacillus, streptobacillus, or
coccobacillus arrangement.
Bacillus species are used in many medical,
pharmaceutical, agricultural, and industrial processes
that take advantage of their wide range of physiologic
characteristics and their ability to produce a host of
enzymes, antibiotics, and other metabolites.
1. Diplobacilli
Most bacilli appear as single rods. Diplobacilli
appear in pairs after division.
Example of Single Rod: Bacillus cereus
Examples: Coxiella burnetii, Moraxella bovis,
Klebsiella rhinoscleromatis, etc
2. Streptobaccili
The bacilli are arranged in chains, as the cells
divide in one plane.
Examples: Streptobacillus moniliformis
3. Coccobacilli
These are so short and stumpy that they appear
ovoid. They look like coccus and bacillus.
Examples: Haemophilus influenzae,
Gardnerella vaginalis, and Chlamydia
trachomatis
4. Palisades
The bacilli bend at the points of division
following the cell divisions, resulting in a
palisade arrangement resembling a picket fence
and angular patterns that look like Chinese
letters.
Example: Corynebacterium ddiphtheriae
Arrangement of Spiral Bacteria
Spirilla (or spirillum for a single cell) are
curved bacteria which can range from a gently
curved shape to a corkscrew-like spiral. Many
spirilla are rigid and capable of movement. A
special group of spirilla known as spirochetes
are long, slender, and flexible.
1. Vibrio
They are comma-shaped bacteria with less than
one complete turn or twist in the cell.
Example: Vibrio cholerae
2. Spirilla
They have rigid spiral structure. Spirillum with
many turns can superficially resemble
spirochetes. They do not have outer sheath and
endoflagella, but have typical bacterial flagella.
Example: Campylobacter jejuni, Helicobacter
pylori, Spirillum winogradskyi, etc.
3. Spirochetes
Spirochetes have a helical shape and flexible bodies.
Spirochetes move by means of axial filaments, which look
like flagella contained beneath a flexible external sheath
but lack typical bacterial flagella.
Examples: Leptospira species (Leptospira interrogans),
Treponema pallidum, Borrelia recurrentis, etc.
1. Filamentous Bacteria 2. Star Shaped Bacteria
They are very long thin filament-shaped Example: Stella
bacteria. Some of them form branching
filaments resulting in a network of filaments
called ‘mycelium’.
Example: Candidatus Savagella
3. Rectangular Bacteria 4. Pleomorphic Bacteria
These bacteria do not have any characteristic
Example: Haloarcula spp (H. vallismortis, H. shape unlike all others described above. They
marismortui) can change their shape. In pure cultures, they
can be observed to have different shapes.
Examples: Mycoplasma pneumoniae, M.
genitalium, etc.