Learning

Unit IV
 Unit 4: Learning LH 6
Concept and Importance
Models of learning-behavioral models (classical and
operant conditioning), cognitive model
(social/observational learning).
 Application of learning theories
i. Shaping behavior - positive reinforcement, negative
reinforcement, and punishment
ii. Schedule of reinforcement
iii. Behavior modification
Learning
MEANING OF LEARNING: Literal
meaning of learning is acquisition of
knowledge or skills through experience,
practice, or study, or by being taught.
Learning is a relatively permanent change
in behavior brought about by experience.
Every activity that an organism perform is
the output of learning
DEFINITIONS:
Morgan et al. (1986) have defined learning as
any relatively permanent change in behavior that
occurs as a result of practice or experience.
Mayers – “Learning is a relatively permanent
change in an organism’s behavior due to
experience”.
Woodworth – “Any activity can be called
learning and it makes behavior different from
each other.”
Boaz – “ Learning is a process by which the
 Learning
The change in behavior due to maturation, sensory
adaptation, fatigue (tiredness, exhaustion, lethargy
etc.), effect of drug, sexual behavior, breathing and
natural growth is not learning.
Learning of new skill is different than the behavior
as a result of natural growth of the body. Both
maturation and learning are different concept and
differ with each other. Maturation is biological
process while learning is an acquired process.
Nature of Learning
Learning starts from the moment of birth and continues
till death. Learning is key component to support an
organism for adjustment. Nature of learning :
 Learning is purposeful
 Learning is a cognitive function
 Learning is an individual factor
 Learning is life-long process
Nature of Learning
 Learning facilitates adjustment
 Learning is an organized process
 Learning is by product of environment
 Learning is an universal
 Learning is an ability to respond differently in
different situation
Nature of Learning
 Past experiences play important role in learning
 It brings modification in behavior
 Learning depends upon the functions of nervous
system ( specially brain functions).
 Learning is interrelationship among Stimulus,
Organism and Environment.
 Learning is a key process in human behavior.
 Theories of learning
- Process of learning
- How does an individual learn in his life?
These are subject of inquiry and investigation before
psychologists and as a result number of theories have
come into being. In broad senses these theories may be
classified into two parts:
i) Behavioristic
ii) Cognitive theories
 Theories of learning
Behavioristic Theories-Falls under the school of
behaviorism: Psychologists interpret learning in
terms of association between stimulus and response.
Under this category theories like Classical and
operant conditioning can be included.
Cognitive theories : It belongs to gestalt
psychology and cognitive psychology. It emphasize
the role of purpose, insight, understanding and other
cognitive factors in the process of learning. Under
this category the theories like insightful learning
theory and social learning theory may be included.
Classical Conditioning
Developed by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian
physiologist
In 1904 he won the Nobel Prize for his
work on digestion
Classical Conditioning occurs when a
stimulus, after pairing with another
stimulus, starts bring out a certain response.
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Associated with a Russian physiologist

IVAN PAVLOV
The classic experiment on conditioning learning
Pavlov attached a tube to the salivary gland of a dog,
allowing him to measure exactly the amount of
salivation that occurred. He then sounded a tuning bell
and just a few seconds later, presented the dog with meat
powder. It is repeatedly performed exactly the same
amount of time.
At first the dog would salivate only when the meat
powder itself was presented, but soon it began to salivate
at the sound of the tuning bell. In fact, even when Pavlov
stopped presenting the meat powder, the dog still
salivated after hearing the sound.
 Basic Concepts
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) : a
stimulus that naturally brings about a
particular response without having been
learned.
Unconditioned response (UCR): a
response that is natural and needs no
training (e.g., salivation at the smell of
food).
 Basic Concepts
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): once neutral
stimulus that has been paired with an
unconditioned stimulus to bring about a
response formerly caused only by the
unconditioned stimulus.
Conditioned Response (CR): a response
that, after conditioning, follows a previously
neutral stimulus (e.g., salivation at the
ringing of a bell).
 Nothing

+
Principles of classical conditioning
Acquisition: The process of learning a new
response.
Extinction: A basic phenomenon of
learning that occurs when a previously
conditioned response decreases in frequency
and eventually disappears.
Spontaneous recovery: The reemergence
of an extinguished conditioned response
after a period of rest and with no further
conditioning.
Principles of classical conditioning
Stimulus generalization: A process in which,
after a stimulus has been conditioned to
produce a particular response, stimuli that are
similar to the original stimulus produce the
same response.
Stimulus discrimination: The process that
occurs if two stimuli are sufficiently distinct
from one another that one evokes a conditioned
response but the other does not; the ability to
differentiate between stimuli.
 Application of classical conditioning
Treatment of phobia: systematic
desensitization
In advertisement
Treatment of behavioral problems: aversion
therapy
Classroom teaching
Operant conditioning
Developed by B. F. Skinner
Learning in which a voluntary response is
strengthened or weakened, depending on its favorable
or unfavorable consequences.
The organism operates on its environment to produce a
desirable result
The Experiment
 A hungry rat is put inside the small compartment of box
(known as Skinner box). The box has a lever (button)
which is mechanically connected with food. This box was
mechanically designed for recording each & every
moments of the rat. The goal of hungry rat is food. To get
food rat did a lot of moments. Eventually, the rat presses
red button & got electric shock. Than the rat presses the
green button (lever) & got food in the food tray. After
gaining this outcome, the rat continues it’s apparent
random moments but sooner & later presses the green
button again, obtaining another patent of food. Finally the
rat consistently operates the lever (button) to obtain food.
Reinforcement
Reinforcement is the process by which a stimulus
increases the probability that a preceding behavior will
be repeated.
A reinforcer is any stimulus that increases the
probability that a preceding behavior will occur again.
Reinforcement
A positive reinforcer is a pleasant stimulus added to
the environment that brings about an increase in a
preceding response.
A negative reinforcer refers to an unpleasant stimulus
whose removal leads to an increase in the probability
that a preceding response will be repeated in the future
Punishment
Punishment refers to a stimulus that decreases the
probability that a prior behavior will occur again.
Positive punishment weakens a response through the
application of an unpleasant stimulus.
Negative punishment consists of the removal of
something pleasant
Principles of operant conditioning
Acquisition
Extinction
Spontaneous recovery
Stimulus generalization
Stimulus discrimination
Reinforcement and punishment
 Schedule of Reinforcement
1. Continuous Reinforcement:
2. Intermittent Reinforcement:
i. Ratio Reinforcement:
a. Fixed
b. Variable
ii. Interval Reinforcement
a. Fixed
b. Variable
 Schedules for reinforcement
Continuous reinforcement schedules: In this schedule
reinforcement is given for every desired behavior.
Intermittent (partial) reinforcement schedule: If
reinforcement is given in some instances & not every
others for making desired behaviors this is called partial
schedule.
Partial reinforcement has two types:
 Ratio: reinforcement in the base of how many desired
response this subject makes.
Interval: Reinforcement in the base of how much time has
passed.
Fixed- and Variable Schedules
Fixed-ratio schedule is a schedule by which
reinforcement is given only after a specific number of
responses are made.
Variable-ratio schedule is a schedule by which
reinforcement occurs after a varying number of
responses rather than after a fixed number.
Fixed-Interval schedule is a schedule by which
reinforcement is given only after a specific time no
matter the number of responses are made
Variable-interval schedule is a schedule by which
reinforcement occurs after a varying interval of time.
Applications of operant conditioning:
 It is important for behavior modification.
 It is important for development of human
personality.
It plays helpful role in teaching.
 It is very influential in business. (Bonus- good
performance)
It is very important in the training of animals.
It is important for behavior shaping & treatment
of behavioral problem.
 Comparing Classical and Operant Conditioning
Classical Conditioning
Type of behavior Reflexive, involuntary behaviors Non reflexive, voluntary behaviors
Source of Elicited by stimulus
behavior
Basis of learning Associating two stimuli: CS +
UCS
Responses Physiological and emotional
conditioned responses
Extinction process Conditioned response decreases
when conditioned stimulus is
repeatedly presented alone
Cognitive aspects Expectation that CS reliably
predicts the UCS
Evolutionary Innate predispositions influence
influences how easily an association is
formed between a particular
stimulus and response
Operant Conditioning
Emitted by organism
Associating a response and the
consequence that follows it
Active behaviors that operate on
the environment
Responding decreases with
elimination of reinforcing
consequences
Performance of behavior
influenced by the expectation of
reinforcement or punishment
Behaviors similar to natural or
instinctive behaviors are more
readily conditioned
Insightful Learning
Social learning theory
 Developed by Albert Bandura in 1964, 1986, 95, 97
 Also known as imitational learning or observational learning
 Bandura (prof. of Stanford university) believed that theories
developed through experiments with animals cannot adequately
explain the learned behavior of human beings, which occurs in
social context.
 According to this theory: “people learn by observing &
imitating others”.
 According to this theory, people take an active part in their own
learning. In addition to imitating their parents, they chose other
models, usually people who seem powerful & respected. The
individuals own characteristics influence the choice of models.
Social learning generally takes place in a social situation.
In social learning theory, imitation of the models is the
most important element.
Children generally learn through imitations (language,
rules, appropriate behaviors, etc).
There are two main characters:
A model: Parents, teachers, movie/sport stars, criminals,
etc.
An imitator: The person who observes and imitates the
behavior of others
The imitator observes the model and experiences the
model’s behavior and its consequences.
The imitator experiences the model’s behavior vicariously.
If the imitator observes that certain behavior on the part of the
model is rewarded and “pays off”, then the imitator copies that
behavior.

This is called “vicarious (secondhand) reinforcement”.

For Example: Imagine you have got a job in sales. You have
no sales experience. So, on your first day you observe an
experienced salesperson.

This allows you to gain knowledge of the statements and

behaviors of effective salespersons.
Factors influencing the observational
learning

Characteristics of the models: similarity, age,

sex, status, prestige, simple vs. complex
behavior

Characteristics of observers: Low self-

confidence, low self-esteem

Reward consequences of behavior: Directly

witnessing associated rewards
Bandura’s experiment
 The actual experiment
 The bobo doll experiment by Badra in 1961. He believes that
people learn through vicarious reinforcement. In this experiment,
three groups of children were shown a film where an adult acted
violently toward dolls. The film begins with the model in a room
of full toys where the model repeatedly hits the doll, says abusive
language, & even hit with hammer. This film had one of three
endings. After the film children were led into same situation.
Group- (a)- model being rewarded : displaying more
aggressive
behavior
Group- (b)_ model being punished : least aggressive
behavior.
Group_ (c) neither rewarded nor punished : average
aggressive
Process of observational learning
According to Bandura four processes are essential for
learning:
Attention process: For learning to take place individual
should attend the model.
Retention process: For learning to take place one should
be able to retain or hold the information the model should
show should be able to store information in memory.
Production process: Learner must be able to convert the
memory representation into appropriate action.
Motivation process: It may be direct or vicarious (reward
of others) plays great role in learning. Feedback also plays
role in learning.
Applications of social learning theory
In education: students learn to pronounce vocabulary
from their teacher.
In treatment of phobia: Often participant modeling is
used to treat phobic patient. For example dog phobia.
In the treatment of dog phobia patient has shown
videos, photos & lives of model with dogs.
In fostering positive behaviors in children: Such as’
helping others’ by elders imitates by children.
Learning social norms & values: A child learns
social & cultural values from their parents & members
of surroundings.
 Behaviour modification
Techniques used to decrease or increase particular types of
behavior
It represent application of reinforcement theory to
individuals in working setting.
It plays a major role for proper management of changes by
modifying behavior of all the member of the organization.
Steps of Behavior Modification
1. Identifying performance
behavior(Critical Behavior)
2. Measurement of behaviour
3. Functional Analysis of behaviour
4. Developing and implementing
intervention strategies
5. Evaluate to ensure performance
improvement
Techniques of behavior modification