Introduction to

Research Methodology
Introduction
SEARCH - an act of searching and examination.

RESEARCH - a careful hunting for facts, enquiry, probe or investigation.

RESEARCH is a way of thinking
Examining critically the various aspects of your professional work

1. Knowing more and more about less and less.

2. The search for knowledge, or as any systematic investigation, with an open
mind,
to establish novel facts,
solve new or existing problems,
prove new ideas, or
develop new theories.
 Definition
• Research is a structured enquiry that utilizes acceptable scientific
methodology to solve problems and create new knowledge that is generally
applicable.
• Research is a process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting information to answer
questions.
• Scientific methods consist of systematic observation, classification and interpretation of
data.
Characteristics of Research
Controlled
Rigorous
Systematic
Valid and Verifiable
Empirical
Critical
 Validity

means that correct

procedures have Reliability
been applied to find
answers to a refers to the quality of a
question. measurement procedure Unbiased and objective
that provides
repeatability and ensure each step in an
accuracy. unbiased manner and
draw each conclusion to
the best of the ability and
without introducing your
own vested interest.
 Objectives
The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered as yet

1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (exploratory or

formulative research studies);

2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group

(descriptive research studies);

3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated
with something else (diagnostic research studies);

4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (hypothesis-testing

research studies).
 Motivation In Research
What makes people to undertake research? This is a question of fundamental
importance.

1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;

2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e.,

concern over practical problems initiates research;

3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;

4. Desire to be of service to society.

5. Desire to get respectability.

Synonyms of Research:
1.Probe 9. Re-establishing
2. Quest 10. Revelation
3. Search 11.Re-validation
4. Enquiry 12. Re-orientation
5. Investigation 13. Discovery
6. Examination 14. Exploration
7. Scrutiny 15. Invention Etc.
8, Verification
Types of Research

Conceptual

Empirical
 Based on Application
From the point of view of application, 2 broad categories of research:
• pure research and Applied research is done to solve specific, practical
questions; for policy formulation, administration and
• applied research. understanding of a phenomenon
Pure research involves developing and testing
theories and hypotheses
It can be exploratory, but is usually descriptive.
It is almost always done on the basis of basic
intellectually challenging to the research.
researcher but may or may not have
practical application at the present time carried out by academic or industrial institutions.
or in the future.
Often, an academic institution such as a university
The knowledge produced through pure will have a specific applied research program funded
research is sought in order to add to by an industrial partner interested in that program
the existing body of research methods.
 Qualitative research
Quantitative research
Important in the behavioural sciences
• Quantitative research is based on
the measurement of quantity or Ex : Investigating the reasons for human
amount. behaviour (i.e., why people think or do certain
things), Like or dislike certain things etc
• It is applicable to phenomena that
can be expressed in terms of
quantity. ‘Motivation
Research’-
This type of research aims at discovering the
underlying motives and desires, using in depth
interviews for the purpose.
Attitude or opinion research –
research designed to find out how people feel or what
they think about a particular subject or institution is also
qualitative research.

Other techniques - word association tests, sentence completion tests, story completion tests
 Conceptual
• Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory.

• It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new

concepts or to reinterpret existing ones.
Empirical research
Relies on experience or observation alone
It is data-based research, with conclusions capable of being verified by observation
or experiment.

We can also call it as experimental type of research.

Necessary to get at facts first-hand, at their source,

Empirical studies is today considered to be the most powerful support possible for a
given hypothesis.
 Some Other Types of Research

All other types of research are variations of one or more of the Previous
types

Based on

• The purpose of research

• The time required to accomplish research
• The environment in which research is done
• The basis of some other similar factors
Based on time
• one-time research- the research is confined to a single time-period,
• longitudinal research- research is carried on over several time-
periods. Depending upon the environment

field-setting research
laboratory research or simulation
research,

Based on other factors clinical or

Exploratory- development of hypotheses rather than their testing diagnostic research
Formalized- studies are those with substantial structure and with specific
hypotheses to be tested.

Historical research - utilizes historical sources like documents, remains, etc. to

study events or ideas of
the past, including the philosophy of persons and groups at
any remote point of time.
What is a research method?
• A research method tries to describe those techniques or
procedures which the researcher has deployed
• to answer the research questions,
• resolve the hypothesis, and
• solve the research problem,
irrespective of which field the research belongs to
• It explains the procedures used to collect data as well as the
techniques for data analysis, among others.
In other words, a research method explains how a researcher
identifies, collects, processes, and analyzes data for his paper.
What is a research methodology?
• justify or rationalize why such a method is preferred to others.
• Research methodology seeks to answer this question.
• Research methodology refers to the underlying logic or reasons
behind the choice of methods for a research project.
• It involves studying the methods used in any particular field
• In other words, research methodology is the rigorous analysis and
evaluation of the methods applied in conducting research to ensure
that the conclusions drawn are valid, reliable, and credible.
Hence, research methods can be said to be a component of research
methodology.
Research method Vs Research Methodology
 Problem Identification

• Field of interest Literature Review:

• Knowing of “what”
• Self analysis
• Discussions with guide
• Best books in the field
• Research articles/ abstracts
• All known journals
 Hypothesis

A supposition or proposed explanation made on the basis of

limited evidence as a starting point for further investigation.

• Relevance.
• Purpose
• Application oriented.
• ‘Why’ –to be answered fully.
Designing a Research Protocol

Title
Rationale
Objectives
Method to be used/ Research design
Data management tools to be used
Analysis tools
References
 Data Collection

(iii) Through telephone (ii) Through personal interview:

interviews:
This method of collecting information involves
contacting the respondents on telephone itself.
This is not a very widely used method
important role in industrial surveys esp in a very
limited time.
The investigator follows a rigid procedure and seeks
answers to a set of pre-conceived questions through
personal interviews.
This method of collecting data is usually carried out
in a structured way
output depends upon the ability of the interviewer to
a large extent.

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mailing
(iv)
questionnaires:
The researcher and the respondents
dont come in contact with each other if
this method of survey is adopted.
Questionnaires are mailed to the
respondents with a request to return
after completing the same.
It is the most extensively used method
in various economic and business
surveys.
a Pilot Study for testing the
questionnaire is conduced
Questionnaire to be used must be
prepared very carefully so that it may
prove to be effective in collecting the
relevant information.
• (v) Through
By observation: schedules:
collection of information • Under this method the
by way of investigator’s enumerators are appointed and
own observation, without given training.
interviewing the • They are provided with schedules
respondents. containing relevant questions.
The information relates • These enumerators go to
to what is currently respondents with these schedules.
happening and is not • Data are collected by filling up the
complicated by either schedules by enumerators on the
the past behaviour or basis of replies given by
future intentions or respondents.
• Much depends upon the capability
attitudes of respondents.
of enumerators so far as this
expensive method method is concerned.
information provided is
very limited.
not suitable in large
samples
 Analysis
• Statically correct.
• Validation tests.
• Uncorrelated data
• Benchmarking with standard techniques
 Publish
Writing papers -art.
Attract the attention of readers
Research → publications -not reverse!
Publish or Patent
Ethics in research.
 FF
Review the literature
FF
Review concepts
Define and theories Formulate Design research Analyse Interpret
Collect Data
research hypotheses (Including data (Test and
(execution) F Hypothese
Problem Review previous sample design) F report
research findings FF s if any)

FF- Feed forward (serves the vial function of providing criteria for evaluation)

F- Feed back (Helps in controlling the sub system to which it is transmitted)

 Research Design
• A research design is the conceptual structure within which research would be
conducted.

• The preparation of the research design, appropriate for a particular research problem is
based on

(i) the means of obtaining the information;

(ii) the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any);
(iii) explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information will be
organised
and the reasoning leading to the selection;
(iv) the time available for research; and
(v) the cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance available for the purpose.
 Research Study Design

Observational Experimental

Descriptive Analytical RCT Non-RCT

Cross-
Case Cohort
Case Reports control studies
sectiona
l studies

Case Series
 Observational

Naturalistic Observation:
Researchers observe and record behaviour in its natural setting without
intervening.
This method is often used in psychology and anthropology.
Structured Observation: Observations are made using a predetermined
set of criteria or a structured observation schedule.
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Case Study Method

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In a case study, the insight-stimulating cases should be selected for special study.
For particular problems, certain cases may be found more appropriate than others.

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The observations of strangers or foreigners may be very valuable, with reference
to a certain community or culture.

Single-Case Study: Focuses on a single individual or entity, providing an in-

depth analysis of that case.

Multiple-Case Study: Involves the examination of multiple cases to identify

patterns, commonalities, or differences.
Longitudinal Study
This research design makes multiple observation, repetitive study and experiments. This
involved same group of people for study over period of time.
The variable are identify and cause are found which made variable have caused change in their
behavior. This also called panel research design.
Advantage:
• Data can be collected from particular phenomenon.
• Various variable established causal relationship.
• Pattern of change can be tracked.
Disadvantage:
• Method is changed over time, but researcher assumes that present trend may remain same
for future also.
 Case Control

• Analytical study
• By Observation & Analysis
• Retrospective Analysis
• Determines who was exposed & who was not exposed to risk factor
 Cohort Study
This study conducted on short population over a period of time. It is
generally deal with statistics section of population which is relevant to
investigational problem.

• Forward Looking/ Prospective study

• Incidence Study
• Longitudinal Study
• Regular follow up over a period of Time
• Proceeds from cause to Effect
• Exposure has occurred when study was initiated but not the disease
Cohort & Control Cohort groups both contain equally susceptible
Population

Steps involved
• Select subject
• Data on exposure
• Select comparison group
• Follow-up
• Analysis
Advantage:
• Action research study is mandatory because involving random people in study is
unethical so it is a risk-based study.
• To provide insights into overtime effect, study should be flexible.
• Primary source and secondary source data can be used.
• Need to avoid debate related to cause and effects because, it can gauge probable cause
before outcome.

Disadvantage:
• No involvement of randomization,
• Research has to wait for condition because it takes long time, so result credibility may
change by variable(Expensive & Time consuming)
• Factor between two cohort groups cannot be controlled
• Inefficient for rare disease
• Large samples needed
 Cross Sectional Study
The research design calculated among study participants at some time. Research variable data
analyze from sample population which is collected from given point of time.
It has selection based on differences rather than selection, dependence based on existing
variations; no time dimension so distinguishing features can be analyzed.
Advantage:
• Study used for large number of subjects.
• Grouping not selected, randomly based on population grouping is done.
• At a point in time provides characteristics of result.
• Results performed on population are more reliable.
• Use large number of subject involves.
Disadvantage:
• Very difficult to find same interest phenomena or subjects.
• Outcome does not provide any historical occurrence because of time-bound procedures.
• Different outcome from different time-frame.
 Experimental Design
The causal relationship where particular cause leads to particular effect or different causes
lead to same effect is determined.
The procedure controls all factors of experiment.
Experimental design uses more measurements and more groups for longer periods of time.
Advantage:
• Placebo effects can be determined from treatment effects.
• From a single study high level of evidence can be collected.
• It determines cause of something to take place.
Disadvantage:
• Because of technical or ethical reasons few procedures cannot be performed.
• It might not fit into real time.
• If procedure uses special equipment and facilities, experiments can be costly.
 Experimental Method
Controlled Experiments:
Researchers manipulate one or more independent variables and
measure their effects on dependent variables while controlling for
confounding factors.
RCT

• Drawing up protocol
• Selecting reference & Experimental group
• Randomization
• Intervention
• Follow-up
•
Non RCT
• Non randomized controlled trial
• Have the potential to study 2 groups which are not strictly comparable

• Investigator allocated the patients to different groups

• Different methodsof controls can be used
• Control group-concurrent/ Historical control( can be previous study
group/ patients on chronic history)
 Few More
Research Designs
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Cross-Sequential Design
Combines elements of cross-sectional and longitudinal research to
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examine both age-related changes and cohort differences.

bolo. How to Select Research Design

The selection of a specific research design method should align with
• The research objectives,
• The type of data needed,
• Available resources,
• Ethical considerations, and the overall research approach.
Researchers often choose methods that best suit the nature of their study
and research questions to ensure that they collect relevant and valid data.
Meta-Analysis
Researchers conduct a quantitative synthesis of data from multiple studies to provide a
comprehensive overview of research findings on a particular topic.

Grounded Theory
A qualitative research method that aims to develop theories or explanations grounded in the data
collected during the research process.

Simulation and Modelling

Researchers use mathematical or computational models to simulate real-world phenomena and
explore various scenarios.

Survey Experiments
Combines elements of surveys and experiments, allowing researchers to manipulate variables within
a survey context
Content Analysis
Researchers analyze textual, visual, or audio data to identify patterns, themes, and
trends. This method is commonly used in media studies and social sciences.

Historical Research
Researchers examine historical documents, records, and artifacts to understand
past events, trends, and contexts.

Ethnographic Research
Researchers immerse themselves in a particular cultural or social group to gain a
deep understanding of their behaviors, beliefs, and practices.
 Criteria of Good Research

1. Good research is systematic:

It means that research is structured with specified steps to be taken in a specified sequence in
accordance with the well defined set of rules.
Systematic characteristic of the research does not rule out creative thinking but it certainly does
reject the use of guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions.

2. Good research is logical:

This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning
The logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying out research.
Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole whereas
deduction is the process of reasoning from some premise to a conclusion which follows from that
very premise.
3 Good research is empirical:
It implies that research is related basically to one or more aspects of a
real situation (observation/ experience)
and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external validity
to research results.

4. Good research is replicable:

This characteristic allows research results to be verified by replicating
the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.