International Security

Chapter 12
 Introduction

• War and world politics—Is the world naturally at peace, or

at war?

• Winston Churchill and Gwynne Dyer both assume we are

naturally war-like

• We can’t ascertain whether humans are naturally peaceful

or warlike, but we can conclude that conflict comes with
politics

• In fact, security is the most fundamental concern for states

2
 Security and Insecurity

• Security: when there is a relatively low probability of

threat or damage to citizens, government, territory,
resources, wealth, and even values such as culture or
identity
– Can never be completely assured for any state
– Individuals and states can feel insecure due to real threats
and violence or an imagined threat felt in the international
system

3
 Security and Insecurity, cont’d

• Geopolitics: association between a state’s political

relationship and its geographical location
– Once thought to be the main source of a country’s security
or insecurity

– Access to resources, beneficial or detrimental relations

with neighbours, physical strength, population, and natural
attributes all fall into the consideration of geopolitics

– Still important today, but international security is now

thought of differently

4
 Security and Insecurity, cont’d
• International security is in fact about the conditions caused by
insecurity
– A state is insecure if it is unable to provide for itself as a
government or for its citizens

• Insecurity can arise from a variety of causes

– Insecurity involves threats to a physical place, person, or group
or to important values felt by the community, including
material welfare and identity
– Threats can be physical, economic, political, cultural, or
environmental
– Only environmental security has the potential to affect us all?
5
 International Anarchy
• International anarchy: Condition where there is no
“world government”; the sovereign nation-state is
the highest authority in the international system
– A condition in IR that has been around for centuries;
fundamental to the study of the international system
– Contributes to a rising frequency of conflict

• With an anarchical international system, state

security is left to the individual ability of states and
their relations with other states

6
 International Anarchy, cont’d
• International anarchy means that citizens have an identifiable
institution (the state or government) that they can look to for
protection, representation, and guidance

• Also creates a security dilemma for states (see Ch. 11)

– Assumption is that not all states can be secure, given limited
resources and competing interests; conflict is inevitable

• States respond to the security dilemma in various ways, but

defense spending is the most common method
– Defense spending policies are based on assessments of risk and
capability

7
 War in International Relations
• Not all conflict is war
– Conflict: state of actual or perceived incompatible
interests

• But all war is a consequence of conflict

– War: use of armed forces in conflict with enemy

• States use foreign and defense policies to form

responses to potential conflict in the world – and war
must be considered “policy”

8
 War and Power

• Several ways in which states us their power in a

“negative manner:”
– Protect their sovereignty by threatening to use military
force in protection of territory;
– Stated or understood threat of military invention for non-
compliance of demands;
– Threaten or use trade embargoes and physical blockages
to influence behaviour of other states;
– Use purely military force in order to accomplish goals.

9
 War and Power, cont’d
• States can also use their powers of influence, gained
through respect and authority in the international
system, to avoid conflict
– Send representatives to negotiate with other states
– Sometimes use threat of power to persuade states from
taking actions deemed detrimental to the international
system

• Long-standing discussion in Canada about whether the

country is a war-fighting or peacekeeping nation
– Reality is probably somewhere in-between and always evolving

10
 Are We More “War-Like”?
• Comparisons to history are controversial:
– Our recorded account of war today is more detailed and accurate
than in the past
– There are many more states in the world today
– Different interpretations of the term war in history

• Generally accepted that in the past 3,200 years: more than 3,000
violent conflicts

• More importantly, since WWII, war is likelier in the developing

world
– The more advanced and developed a region, the less likely that violent
conflict will occur there

11
 Terrorism

• Terrorism: a strategy of violence designed to bring about

political change by instilling fear in the public at large

• Since 9/11, terrorism is prime source of insecurity

• Not an overstatement to say those attacks change global

security issues

• Legacy of 9/11 (Afghan and Iraq wars, global terror

networks) is still with us

12
 Terrorism, cont’d
• Based on a belief that violence is only way to achieve political
change
– Conventional modes of politics seen as illegitimate; political structures
cannot be changed, so they must be destroyed

• Terrorism is difficult for governments to predict and respond to,

and is relatively inexpensive (and accessible) for would-be
terrorists to carry out

• Furthermore, many states that are recognized as legitimate by

others support terrorist actions
– Saudi Arabia, Libya, North Korea, Afghanistan, Sudan, Syria, and Lebanon
have all been labelled “sponsoring” states

13
 Terrorism, cont’d

• Difficult problem for international security because it

constitutes a unique threat in many ways:
– Cannot be treated simply as a crime, ignoring its political
nature;
– Reacting as one would to a conventional threat might
give the terrorists legitimacy in the eyes of their
supporters or observers;
– Policies that might dissuade terrorism often come at the
cost of civil liberties;
– Trying to establish “root causes” often leads to simplistic
answers

14
 Humanitarian Interventionism

• Countries “intervene” in affairs of others all the time

• Humanitarian intervention is different

– Interference in the affairs of a sovereign state with the
intention of reducing the suffering felt by people in that
country

• May be justified as means to help others, but will

always be contentious and contested
– Exactly when do we “know” it is time to intervene?

15
 Humanitarian Interventionism, cont’d

• John Stuart Mill: right and responsibility of civilized

states to intervene in the interests of international
morality

• The Holocaust led to renewed attention to

intervention
– Yet we still fail to act (see Box 12.6 on Rwanda)

• Responsibility to Protect (R2P) a recent (2001)

attempt to clarify need to act against atrocities
16
 Peacekeeping, Conflict Management, and
Resolution
• Many forms of resolving conflict today, beyond
engaging in war:
– Diplomacy:
– Negotiation: bargaining process in which the parties
involved try to resolve a dispute in a mutually
satisfactory manner;
– Mediation: voluntary process using an impartial party
to resolve a dispute;
– Arbitration: authoritative dispute resolution made by
an impartial person and agreed upon by all parties
involved
17
 Peacekeeping, Conflict Management, and
Resolution, cont’d
• Peacekeeping is less common, but perhaps the best
example of modern conflict management
– Peacekeeping: placing of military and civilian personnel in a
conflict area as an attempt to stop or contain hostilities or
supervise the carrying out of a peace agreement

• A “Canadian invention” with Lester Pearson’s 1956

“emergency force” proposal to the UN

• Primary intent of the UN was to manage conflict

– Since 1948, 67 peacekeeping missions sponsored by the UN

18
 Criticisms of Peacekeeping
• What is the role of an international organization (the UN) in a world of
sovereign states?

• Has international peacekeeping become overloaded?

– Can the UN respond effectively to a high volume of emerging security
threats?

• Can different armed forces work together effectively?

• How are peacekeeping operations defined and where are they carried out?

• Will great power nations such as the US, UK, and China continue to support
peacekeeping operations?

19
 Canada in Afghanistan

• The United Nations Security Council and NATO

sanctioned the invasion of Afghanistan
– The International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) was
created by the UN in late 2001 to oversee military
operations
– ISAF initially concerned with establishing peace and
security in Kabul while military forces from some
countries (notably the US and UK) continued a separate
military operation, Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF)
– In 2003, NATO took control of ISAF; expanded reach to
include rest of Afghanistan

20
 Canada in Afghanistan: 2001-2004

• Canada was past of the international alliance of states

involved in the invasion:
– October 2001: Operation Apollo, a naval mission, was sent
to the Arabian Gulf
– November 2001: members of Canada’s Joint Task Force 2
(JTF2) were part of international operations against Taliban
and al-Qaeda fighters
– February 2002: Canadian soldiers landed in Afghanistan and
set up base at Camp Julien outside Kabul
– By 2004, Canadian contingent stood at over 2,000
personnel, one of the largest national groups in the country.

21
 Canada in Afghanistan: 2005-2011

• Until 2005, Canadian mission as almost entirely at Camp

Julien
– Part of the ISAF mandate
– From 2003-2005, Canada’s Operation Athena aided the
reconstruction effort by providing local peacekeeping,
military patrols, and civilian assistance in the city

• In 2005, Kabul mission shut down and moved to more

dangerous Kandahar region
– Canada’s work included aid and assistance, political
relations, policing, training, and military operations

22
 Canada in Afghanistan: 2005-2011

• Canada’s Kandahar mission, Operation Archer, involved

more conventional battle operations with insurgents
– Much higher death toll than in Kabul;
– New criticism and public outcry over mission’s methods

• Canada’s mission in Afghanistan was complicated

– Coming to the aid of its military ally, the US; mission was
authorized by UN and NATO; involvement was not purely military

• Canada removed its military forces in 2011; placed 950

personnel in Kabul as part of training mission

23
 Canada in Afghanistan: Aftermath

• Afghan mission is an excellent example of changing

nature of international security
– Terrorist organized sheltered by a reclusive illegitimate
regime committed terrorist acts against the most
powerful nation on earth
– Changed the focus of international relations
– Response to 9/11, which is still ongoing, perhaps
more significant
• Success or failure of Afghan mission will speak volumes about the
ability of rich nations to develop and facilitate change in the most
underdeveloped parts of the world

24
 Canada in Afghanistan: Aftermath, cont’d

• Canada’s security role changed in a relatively short

time
– Previously renowned for peacekeeping; post-9/11, more
forceful projection of its military
– Aiding NATO alliance in Afghanistan brought Canada
distinction for its leadership and sacrifice
– Post-2011, role shift from war-fighting to stabilization in
Afghanistan
– Did Afghanistan change how Canadians perceive their
history and themselves?

25
International Political Economy

Chapter 13

26
 Introduction

• Beginning in 2008, many of the world’s richest countries

underwent a series of financial and economic crises
– Produced massive unemployment, huge losses in wealth,
and the need for intense international co-operation and
government bailouts of the banking system

• In 2011-2012, the situation in Europe was particularly

bad (the Eurozone Crisis)
– Caused by the very thing that was credited for its stability
and prosperity: economic integration

27
 What is IPE?
• Relatively new area of international politics (est. 1970s)
• IPE studies the interaction between politics and economics,
states and markets, in the international system
– Explicitly recognizes that domestic and international actors and
processes continuously interact
• Historically, states have depended upon their economic
capabilities to develop power and influence in other forms
• Primary actors are not just states
– Since 1945, fundamental shift in power and influence away from
states and toward private financial actors, such as banks and
securities firms

28
 The Perspectives of IPE

Three major perspectives (not mutually exclusive)

dominate:
• Liberalism:
– free functioning of markets, increased individual freedom,
progress in the form of increased wealth;
– concerned with international co-operation between states
(esp. in matters of trade);
– focus is aimed at removing the state from the economic
sphere as much as possible, thereby increasing the
market’s role in issues of distribution, competition, and
pricing

29
 The Perspectives of IPE, cont’d

• Marxism:
– views international capitalist economy as a tool of
oppression whereby the controllers of capital exploit
the laboring classes;
– wealthy, powerful states exploit poorer, weaker states;
– focus on analyzing the unequal conditions of the
international economy and studying exploitation;
– analysis of the international system’s exploitative
nature goes hand-in-hand with a commitment to
change it

30
 The Perspectives of IPE, cont’d

• Nationalism:
– sees the international economy as an arena in which
states are involved in a constant battle for, at the least,
survival and, at the most, supremacy;
– international economic relations are viewed in a
competitive light – states strive to surpass each other not
only in levels of productivity, growth, and power but also
in the benefits that each gains from economic intercourse;
– calls for an expanded role for the state so that it can
manage its external economic relations to the best
advantage

31
 Economic Interdependence
• IPE assumes the interdependence of states in the global
economy
– The mutual but not necessarily equal dependence between states;
can take an economic, political, environmental, or security form;
always implies that actions and policies taken in one national
political or economic system will affect other states

• Good example is the close economic relationship between

Canada and the US

• But interdependence is more than bilateral

– Can be regional or between groups of states

32
 International Economic Co-operation
• Post-WWII, states strove to deepen economic links
with one another

• Growth of interdependence led to new international

organizations (IOs) and agreements
– e.g., GATT, WTO, IMF
– See Box 13.1 on different organizations

• IOs “tied” states to cooperative behaviour for trade,

loans, investment, and finance

33
 The World Trading System

• Trade has more than economic effects

• International trade is often credited with creating

employment, increasing consumer choice, introducing
new ideas and cultural ideals, and contributing to
economic efficiency

• However, international trade is also an historically

divisive issue in national and international politics
– Can destroy jobs in uncompetitive economies and industries

34
 The World Trading System, cont’d

• Can lead to calls for trade protection

– tendency of countries to safeguard their own economic
sectors or industries using tariffs, quotas, or other forms
of trade and investment legislation

• Cultural aspects of international trade are also

controversial
– Contributes to spread of dominant cultures at the
expense of traditional values and norms
– Traditional cultures and economic models can become
unattractive, particular to young people
35
 The Growth of Trade since 1846
• In The Wealth of Nations (1776), Adam Smith urged free
trade and minimal role for the state
– Argued that free trade brought benefits in terms of efficiency,
cost, and the division of labour

• 1846: pressure from British industrialists caused the

government to repeal the Corn Laws
– Corn Laws: set of laws regulating the British grain trade; the
abolition of these laws in 1846 opened up British agricultural
trade
– other states reciprocated; result was a dramatic growth in the
levels of world trade
36
 The Growth of Trade since 1846, cont’d

• Britain was able to have low tariffs because its economy

had become much larger than other states’
– The relative costs of such a policy were low;
– The British navy (largest in the world) could keep sea trade
routes open;
– British investment in railway systems helped in
transportation of goods via land

• Growth in international trade that accompanied British

economic and naval predominance continued until WWI;
did not regain previous levels until longer after WWII
37
The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
(GATT)
• End of WWII: emergency of the United States as an
economic and military superpower
– Helped shape the international economic system through
creation of institutions and organizations aimed at
international economic management

• The GATT established in 1947

– Meant to be temporary but became world’s permanent
trade regime
– Designed to promote several values (still held today)
considered to be central by the US and its allies:
38
 The GATT, cont’d
• Multilateralism: decisions would be taken in consultation
with all members, and in their interests;

• Reciprocity: the liberalization of trade would be

beneficial for all parties concerned;

• Non-discrimination: no members could be excluded from

the benefits that one member state extends to another;
and

• Free trade: efficiency, prosperity, and peace would be

promoted.
39
 The GATT, cont’d
• GATT lasted from 1947 to 1995

• Not all states benefitted

• Communist states not included

• Developing states could not compete on same level

– Created UNCTAD—the United Nations Conference on Trade
and Development

• GATT “renewed” through several rounds of negotiation

until creation of World Trade Organization
40
 The World Trade Organization (WTO)
• Created in 1995 as a forum for promoting free
trade between nations in goods and services
– Uruguay Round (1986-94), longest round of trade
negotiations, led to WTO

• Unlike GATT, WTO has legal standing like other

major economic institutions (e.g., IMF), and
dispute resolution process
– Dispute resolution: process by which trading
disagreements between member states can be
resolved by an impartial tribunal, thus preventing
such disputes from becoming too political or
controversial
41
 The WTO, cont’d

• The G20
– formed by the WTO ministerial conference in 2003
– led by five important LDCs (China, India, Brazil, Mexico,
and South Africa), the G20 had successfully operated as a
bloc in WTO negotiations to prevent any agreement that
goes against their interests
• Major point of contention: agricultural subsidies in
developed states, which damage the competitiveness of
developing countries’ agricultural producers
– Ultimate failure of Doha Round negotiations in 2008,
largely because the US and Europe insisted on maintaining
their agricultural subsidies
42
 The WTO, cont’d

• In the aftermath of the 2008 crisis, the US and Europe

had little enthusiasm for further trade liberalization

• The future and stability of the WTO are in question

– President Donald Trump has threatened to pull the US out of
the WTO altogether
– China and India are also major players in the WTO, and have
both played a role in delaying or defeating negotiations and
agreements
– Inadequate number of judges in the WTO undermines the
organization’s capacity to resolve disputes

43
 Present and Future Challenges for Trade

• Many LDCs are pressing within the WTO for greater

concessions to spur growth in their economies;
• Link between trade and environmental issues remains
vital area for research and political action;
• Biggest challenges lie in the classic question of the
struggle for power:
1. The emergence of regional free trade blocs, particularly
in Europe and North America
• Countries of the EU and NAFTA/CUSMA have shown a distinct
tendency to trade more and more within their respective blocs,
a trend that some see as a threatening international trade

44
Present and Future Challenges for Trade,
cont’d
2. Conflict between these two regions
• Europeans have traditionally seen a more expanded state role in
the economy and are more comfortable with free trade taking a
back seat to political and social concerns;
• Generally, US has pushed for reduced role for government;
• Canadian liberalism more moderate than in Europe
3. Rise of China, India, Mexico, and Brazil as major
economies and trading nations
• As these four countries continue to grow in power and try to
establish their place in the WTO, we are likely to see increased
tension and rivalry in trade

45
 The International System of Money and
Finance
• International financial and monetary system: set of
rules, institutions, and agreements governing the
flow of money in the international system; the
relative values of currencies and the settling of
accounts

• Money and finance have always been central to the

development of the international economy, and the
health and stability of the two systems have always
been intertwined
46
What is the International Monetary System?

• For international economic interaction, we need

either:
1. A global currency, or
2. Internationally agreed-upon rules dictating the relative
values of national currencies

• Most often the second. Two types:

1. Fixed exchange rate system: states agree upon set
values for their currencies in terms of other national
currencies
2. Floating exchange rate system: market decides the
relative values of national monies
47
What is the International Financial System?
• The means by which capital and investment are moved from
one national economy to another

• Made up of financial transactions between states, international

financial institutions (Ex. IMF), banks, and other private financial
institutions, corporations, and individuals

• Level of political control over international finance has changed

over time

• A badly functioning financial system compromises economic

efficiency and restrains economic development
48
 The Bretton Woods System
• Economic planners who attended the conference
(esp. the US and UK) were determined to avoid
the mistakes of the interwar years
– High levels of economic nationalism and competition
between states were seen as a cause of WWII

• The aim was promoting free trade and preventing

another financial depression

• Saw the solution as the creation of a system of

fixed exchange rates and heavy controls on
private banks and other financial institutions
49
 The Bretton Woods System, cont’d

• Led to two new institutions:

– International Monetary Fund (IMF): oversee the
international monetary system, enforce a regime of fixed
exchange rates, and lend money to states experiencing
balance of payments difficulties
– The International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development (World Bank): provide funding for the
reconstruction of Europe after the destruction of WWII
and for programs of economic development in the Third
World

50
 The Bretton Woods System, cont’d

• After 1945, private finance remained largely

national while international finance was
dominated by the IMF, World Bank, the Marshall
Plan, and later, government-to-government loans
in the form of bilateral aid
– Marshall Plan: US government loan program designed
to help the devastated countries of Western Europe
after WWII
– Bilateral aid: military or development assistance given
by one country to another

51
 The End of Bretton Woods
• August 1971: President Richard Nixon announced US would
abandon fixed exchange rates
– New arrangement sometimes referred to as a non-system because
clearly defined rules determining relative currency values are absent

• Even before 1971, private finance was beginning to break free

from Bretton Woods controls
– European banks evaded national regulatory control by lending money
in different currencies;
– US private banks gradually expanded their operations outside of
national markets in response to the growth of MNCs and their need
for capital

52
 After Bretton Woods
• Technological advances, especially in communications,
allowed for the transmission of information and funds
internationally

• In the 1980s and 1990s, Western governments began to

eliminate regulations restricting foreign competition in
national financial markets, as well as those limiting the
activities of banks/other financial actors
– Deregulation of finance matched both the liberal ideology and
economic goals of leading states such as the US and UK

• By the late 20th century, national financial centres such as

London, New York, and Tokyo were competing among
themselves for the business of finance

53
 The Latin American Debt Crisis
• After Bretton Woods system ended, banks in advanced
industrialized economies began looking to developing
economies as outlets for the capital that had been
deposited with them
– Potentially very high profits for banks = LDCs were rapidly
industrializing and were willing to pay higher interest rates than
borrowers in developed markets

• Latin America benefitted the most from this trend in the

1970s; flow of loans reached US$150-$200 billion by 1983

• Unfortunately, much of the loans were wasted on

economically non-viable projects and corruption
54
 The Latin American Debt Crisis, cont’d

• 1982: Mexico announced it would not be able to make

interest payments on its debt; Brazil followed in 1986
– Debt crisis began; banks refused to lend further money,
which deepened the crisis

• IMF acted as coordinating agency, bringing together

creditors and debtors – but did not come up with more
than stop-gap measures during 1982-89

• In 1989, a debt reduction plan proposed by US Treasury

Secretary Nicholas Brady offered a lasting solution

55
 International Finance and the Late 1990s
Crisis
• Era after Latin American debt crisis: increased size and mobility of
international capital; billions of dollars could be withdrawn from a
national economy in hours

• 1994: Mexican government devalued the national currency (peso),

causing both Mexican and foreign investors to pull money out of
the country
– “first financial crisis of the 21st century” because it involved millions of
investors and immediate capital flight

• Followed 3 years later by similar crisis in Thailand, Indonesia, and

South Korea
– 1998: Russia, Brazil, and Argentina

56
 The Global Financial Crisis, 2008
• Most serious financial crisis since 1929 stock market crash

• Triggered by US housing crisis in 2008

– Mortgage holders considered a risk because they didn’t meet normal
eligibility requirements (“sub-prime” borrowers) began to default on
payments

• Interdependence of global finance system meant effects were

systemic

• Solving crisis meant massive injection of liquidity from world’s

leading central banks, emergency loans to banks, and
international coordination of economic and financial policy
among world’s leading powers
57
 Effects of the Global Financial Crisis
• Recession caused loss of hundreds of thousands of jobs, and
negative economic growth for the first time since 1945

• Slow recovery began in 2010, but crisis remained in other

aspects
– Unemployment, national debt issues, reduced investments

• Crisis caused analysts and policy-makers to rethink

commitment to liberal, free market policies and ideas
– Governments increasingly turned to regulation of financial markets
and capitalism

• Canada: no real crisis, because of centrally regulated banking

system (including mortgage lending)

58
 Economic Regionalism
• In recent years, globalizing trend matched by a tendency
toward economic development based on geographic regions
(economic regionalism)

• More and more regions are seeking localized economic

integration rather than global
– APEC, NAFTA (CUSMA), EU

• Does the regionalization process lead to economic enrichment

of participating members, particularly poorer countries, or
does it result in the exploitation of poor nations’ cheap labour
and natural resources?
59
 Oil and Oil Prices

• Price of oil hugely affects world economy

• Until 1970s, price driven by Seven Sisters:

– Seven Sisters: major oil companies Esso, Royal Dutch Shell,
British Petroleum, Mobil, Chevron, Gulf, and Texaco

• OPEC (Organization of the Petroleum Exporting

Countries), formed in 1960 by Iran, Iraq, Kuwait,
Saudi Arabia, and Venezuela, quadrupled price of oil
in 1973
60
 Oil and Oil Prices, cont’d
• Next major price rise: 1979-80, caused “oil shock”

• The effect on the international political economy was huge

– OPEC states became major players, esp. Saudi Arabia
– Many OPEC states began earing more from oil than they could
possibly spend on economic development and infrastructure;
deposited the surplus into international banks
– Much of this money was funneled to other developing states
and contributed to the debt crisis of the 1980s

• Oil prices fell and remained low between early 1980s and
late 1990s; high prices returned by 2007

61
 Oil and Oil Prices, cont’d
• As economic growth recovers and demand continues, we should
expect high oil prices to continue

• Issue that may affect long-term oil prices: possibility of

alternative sources of energy
– Ex. wind, solar, and biofuels
– Renewable and clean energy sources are vital for sustainable
development to become possible on a global scale

• Discovery of shale gas reserves in recent years

– Controversial extraction process (fracking)
– Canada and the US have moved toward large-scale production of shale
gas
62
 Multinational Corporations

• Concern over the power and influence of MNCs over

LDC governments
– MNCs are in the position to negotiate preferential
conditions for their investments, secure tax breaks and
cheap access to labour and raw materials;
– MNCs accused of engaging in political activities within
host states designed to manipulate the democratic
process to profit the MNCs’ political and economic
interests;
– MNCs accused of acting as their respective
government’s agents in foreign countries
63